Educating the Student Body Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (2013) / Chapter Skim
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3 Physical Activity and Physical Education: Relationship to Growth, Development, and Health
3 Physical Activity and Physical Education: Relationship to Growth, Development, and Health
Pages 97-160
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From page 97... ...
• Physical activity can improve mental health by decreasing and preventing conditions such as anxiety and depression, as well as improving mood and other aspects of well-being. • Physical activity programming specifically designed to do so can improve psychosocial outcomes such as self-concept, social b ehaviors, goal orientation, and most notably self-efficacy.
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From page 98... ...
• be effective, physical activity programming must align with the To predictable developmental changes in children's exercise capacity and motor skills, which affect the activities in which they can suc cessfully engage. • Frequent bouts of physical activity throughout the day yield short term benefits for mental and cognitive health while also providing opportunities to practice skills and building confidence that pro motes ongoing engagement in physical activity.
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From page 99... ...
Physical education provides opportunities for developmentally appropriate physical activity, usually structured to promote motor skill development, fitness, and health. The relationship between physical activity and physical fitness is complex and bidirectional.
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From page 100... ...
. Adults engaged in regular physical activity have lower rates of chronic disease (e.g., coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, osteoporosis, and some cancers)
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From page 101... ...
Just as it is unrealistic to expect all children at the same age to achieve the same academic level, it is unrealistic to expect children at the same age to have the same physical development, motor skills, and physical capacity. Regular physical activity does not alter the process of growth and development.
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From page 102... ...
Development continues as different systems become functionally refined. Development also refers to the acquisition and refinement of behavior relating to competence in a variety of inter related domains, such as motor competence and social, emotional, and cognitive competence.
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From page 103... ...
. The mastery of fundamental motor skills is strongly related to physical activity in children and adolescents (Lubans et al., 2010)
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From page 104... ...
Typically, individuals are in the secondary school years during this period, which is a time of decline in habitual physical activity, especially in girls. Physical activity trends are influenced by the development of secondary sex characteristics and other physical changes that occur during the adolescent growth spurt, as well as by societal and cultural factors.
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From page 105... ...
An accelerated increase in stature is a hallmark, with about 20 percent of adult stature being attained during this period. Along with the rapid increase in height, other changes in body proportions occur that have important implications for sports and other types of activities offered in physical education and physical activity programs.
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From page 106... ...
Thus, beyond contributing to levels of physical activity, physical education programs should aim to teach basic fundamental motor skills and their application to games, sports, and other physical activities, especially during the elementary years (i.e., the fundamental motor patterns and context-specific periods)
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From page 107... ...
If children are able to achieve a level of competence above the proficiency barrier, they are more likely to continue to engage in physical activity throughout the life span that requires the use of fundamental motor skills. Conversely, less skilled children who do not exceed the proficiency barrier will be less likely to continue to engage in physical activity.
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From page 108... ...
recently examined the relationship between motor competence and health outcomes. They reviewed 21 studies identifying relationships between fundamental motor skills and self-worth, perceived physical competence, muscular and cardiorespiratory fitness, weight status, flexibility, physical activity, and sedentary behavior.
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From page 109... ...
. Investigators report moderate correlations between motor skills competence and physical activity in middle school–age children (Reed et al., 2004; Jaakkola et al., 2009)
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From page 110... ...
suggest that object control and locomotor skills may be more related to boys' and girls' physical activity, respectively, because of the activity type in which each sex typically engages. The relationship between motor competence and physical activity clearly is complex.
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From page 111... ...
. While studies generally support that physical activity is associated with greater fat-free mass and lower body fat, distinguishing the effects of physical activity on fat-free mass from expected changes associated with growth and maturation is difficult, especially during adolescence, when both sexes have significant growth in fat-free mass.
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From page 112... ...
Girls have, on average, a slightly greater bone mineral content than boys in early adolescence, reflecting their earlier adolescent growth spurt. Boys have their growth spurt later than girls, and their bone mineral content continues to increase through late adolescence, ending with greater skeletal dimensions and bone mineral content (Mølgaard et al., 1997)
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From page 113... ...
. Physical activity may reduce osteoporosis-related fracture risk by increasing bone mineral accrual during development; by enhancing bone strength; and by reducing the risk of falls by improving muscle strength, flexibility, coordination, and balance (Bloomfield et al., 2004)
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From page 114... ...
, and there is significant interest in the distribution of adipose tissue, the changes that occur during childhood and adolescence, and their clinical significance. Adipocytes increase in size (hypertrophy)
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Visceral adipose tissue
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From page 116... ...
After age 7 to 8, correlations between subcutaneous fat in later childhood and adolescence and adult subcutaneous fat are significant and moderate. Longitudinal data on tracking of visceral adipose tissue are not available, but percent body fat does appear to track.
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From page 117... ...
High levels of physical activity are most likely needed to modify skinfold thicknesses and percent body fat. In adults, visceral adipose tissue declines with weight loss with exercise.
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From page 118... ...
aerobic power increases into adolescence relative to body weight, there is a slight decline in both boys and girls, suggesting that body weight increases at a faster rate than maximal oxygen consumption, particularly during and after the adolescent growth spurt (Malina et al., 2004)
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From page 119... ...
Although genetic factors ultimately limit capacity, environmental and behavioral factors, including physical activity, interact with genes to determine the degree to which an individual's full capacity is achieved. Health-Related Fitness Cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, and body composition are components of health-related fitness historically assessed in school-based fitness assessment programs (IOM, 2012a)
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From page 120... ...
Muscle strength and endurance are correlated, especially at higher levels of force production. Muscle strength is proportional to the cross-sectional area of skeletal muscle; consequently, strength growth curves parallel growth curves for body weight and skeletal muscle mass (Malina et al., 2004)
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From page 121... ...
. Youth resistance training, as with most physical activities, does carry some degree of risk of musculoskeletal injury, yet the risk is no greater than that associated with other sports and activities in which children and adolescents participate (Council on Sports Medicine Fitness, 2008; Faigenbaum et al., 2009)
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From page 122... ...
. Body composition Body composition is the component of health-related fitness that relates to the relative amount of adipose tissue, muscle, bone, and other vital components (e.g., organs, connective tissues, fluid compart
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From page 123... ...
In settings in which estimation of body fat is difficult, weightfor-height ratios often are used as surrogates for body composition. Indeed, definitions of pediatric overweight and obesity have been based on BMI, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height squared.
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. Health-related percent fat standards recently were developed by determining levels of body fat associated with greater occurrence of chronic disease risk factors defined by metabolic syndrome (Going et al., 2011)
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Metabolic syndrome The tendency for risk factors for cardiometabolic disease to cluster, now called metabolic syndrome, is well recognized in adults (Alberti and Zimmet, 1998)
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From page 126... ...
. Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured as estimated peak oxygen consumption using a submaximal treadmill exercise protocol, and metabolic syndrome was represented as a "clustered score" derived from five established risk factors for cardiovascular disease, an adiposity index, insulin resistance, systolic blood pressure, triglycerides, and the ratio of total to HDL cholesterol.
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From page 127... ...
Indeed, based on the inverse associations of physical activity and physical fitness with metabolic syndrome (Kim and Lee, 2009) and on the available intervention studies, some experts have recommended physical activity as the main therapeutic tool for prevention and treatment of metabolic syndrome in childhood (Brambilla et al., 2010)
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From page 128... ...
. In obese children and adolescents, as in their adult counterparts, elevation of inflammatory markers is evident, and observational studies have shown significant relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and inflammation (Isasi et al., 2003; Platat et al., 2006; Ruiz et al., 2007; Wärnberg et al., 2007; Wärnberg and Marcos, 2008)
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From page 129... ...
. In another study, low-grade inflammation was negatively associated with muscle strength in overweight adolescents after controlling for cardioespiratory fitness, suggesting that r high levels of muscle strength may counter ct some of the negative conse a quences of higher levels of body fat (Ruiz et al., 2008)
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From page 130... ...
. School-based physical activity, including physical education and sports, is designed to increase physical activity while also improving motor skills and development, self-efficacy, and general feelings of competency and engaging children socially (Bailey, 2006)
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From page 131... ...
. Skill mastery, confidence building, and group support are wellknown strategies for advancing student learning and well-being in many educational domains in the school setting and apply equally to school physical education and other physical activity.
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From page 132... ...
The promotion of more physical activity and quality physical education in the school setting is likely to result in psychosocially healthier children who are more likely to engage in physical activity as adults. Schools can play an important role in ensuring opportunities for physical activity for a segment of the youth population that otherwise may not have the resources to engage in such activity.
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From page 133... ...
. In addition to reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety, studies indicate that regular physical activity may help prevent the onset of these conditions (Penedo and Dahn, 2005)
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From page 134... ...
Higher levels of attendance and participation in physical education are inversely associated with feelings of sadness and risk of considering suicide (Brosnahan et al., 2004)
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From page 135... ...
. Interventions have been shown to be effective in improving mental health when delivered by classroom teachers, physical education specialists, or researchers but may be most effective when conducted with a physical education specialist (Ahn and Fedewa, 2011)
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From page 136... ...
found that, compared with nondiagnosed individuals, physical activity had a fivefold greater impact on those diagnosed with cognitive impairment and a twofold greater effect on those diagnosed with emotional disturbance, suggesting that physical activity has the potential to improve the mental health of those most in need. In sum, although more studies are needed, and there may be some differences in the magnitude and nature of the mental health benefits derived, it appears that physical activity is effective in improving mental health regardless of age, ethnicity, gender, or mental health status.
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From page 137... ...
. Mechanisms It is not surprising that physical activity improves mental health.
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From page 138... ...
positive social interactions that can result from quality physical activity programming (Peluso and de Andrade, 2005) (see also the discussion of psychosocial health above)
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From page 139... ...
This finding, together with the finding that health-related behaviors and disease risk factors may track from childhood into adulthood, underscores the need for early and ongoing opportunities for physical activity. Children's exercise capacity and the activities in which they can successfully engage change in a predictable way across developmental periods.
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From page 140... ...
Physical education curricula are structured to provide developmentally appropriate experiences that build the motor skills and self-efficacy that underlie lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activity, and trained physical education specialists are uniquely qualified to deliver them (see Chapter 5)
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From page 141... ...
The quality of physical activity programming also is critical; psycho social outcomes and improvements in specific motor skills, for example, are likely the result of programming designed specifically to target these outcomes rather than just a result of increases in physical activity per se. These psychosocial outcomes also are likely to lead to increased levels of physical activity in both the short and long terms, thereby conferring greater health benefits.
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From page 142... ...
2006. Physical education and sport in schools: A review of benefits and out comes.
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2008. But I like PE: Factors associated with enjoyment of physical education class in middle school girls.
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2010. Physical activity as the main thera peutic tool for metabolic syndrome in childhood.
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2008. Change in physical education motivation and physical activity behavior during middle school.
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1999. Association of body fat distribution and cardiovascular risk factors in children and adolescents.
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2007a. Combined influence of cardiorespiratory fitness and body mass index on cardiovascular disease risk factors among 8-18 year old youth: The Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study.
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2000. Predictors of intrinsic motivation among ado lescent students in physical education.
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2011. Percent body fat and chronic disease risk factors in US children and youth.
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2009. Physical activity and motor skills in children with and without visual impairments.
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Perceptual and Motor Skills 108(1)
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From page 152... ...
2002. Low levels of leisure-time physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness predict development of the metabolic syndrome.
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2007. Effect of physical activity intervention on body composition in young children: Influence of body mass index status and gender.
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2000. Augmented trochanteric bone mineral density after modified physical education
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2005. Aerobic exercise training improves insulin sensitivity without changes in body weight, body fat, adiponectin, and inflammatory markers in overweight and obese girls.
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2007. Influence of aerobic power and percent body fat on cardiovascular disease risk in youth.
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2006. The relationship between fundamental motor skills and outside-school physical activity of elementary school children.
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1999. Is physical activity related to body size, fundamental motor skills, and CHD risk factors in early childhood?
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2008. Physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and the metabolic syndrome in youth.
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2012. Percent body fat is a better predictor of cardiovascular risk factors than body mass index.
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