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Production of Food and Feed Crops
Production of Food and Feed Crops
Pages 117-177
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From page 117... ...
The significance of food and feed crops is that they provide, directly or indirectly, about 90 percent of the world's food supply. Chief among the major food crops are rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, millet, barley, rye, oats, soybeans, field beans, chick peas, pigeon peas, peanuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, potatoes, sugar beets, sugarcane, coconuts, and bananas.
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From page 118... ...
Research investments are needed to maximize or optimize the production of food crops per unit of time, with the least expenditure or commitment of land, water, fuel, and fertilizer. The two most important processes that use solar energy are photosynthesis and biological nitrogen fixation; research on these processes can be expected to lead to greater production of carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, and energy.
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From page 119... ...
Planting designs and multiple cropping should be developed to capture maximum solar energy. INTRODUCTION It is estimated that world food production must double by the year 2000.
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From page 120... ...
Thus, the future of the world's food supply may lie squarely at the door of photosynthesis and its partitioning into the harvested part. What has been the history of photosynthetic yields while these remarkable successes in grain yield have been obtained in corn?
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From page 121... ...
Yet progress has been nil in breeding crop varieties which have superior photosynthetic yield capacity. The photosynthetic rate in crop species has proven to be highly variable in time and subject to enormous environmental influence.
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From page 122... ...
Corn, sugarcane, and several other highly productive crop species have evolved a photosynthetic system which protects its carboxylating enzyme from photorespiration. It is estimated that the photosynthetic yield of wheat, rice, soybeans, and many other crops could be increased by up to 100 percent if a genetic or chemical inhibition of photorespiration could be attained.
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From page 123... ...
Although the knowledge of carbon dioxide benefit by crops grown in greenhouses has been known for half a century, and was put to use to a limited extent during World War II in Germany, it has not been pursued as a researchable means of maximizing the productivity of field food crops. Massive supplies of carbon dioxide are dumped into the atmosphere and could potentially be used for enhancing crop production.
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From page 124... ...
INTRODUCTION The major portion of all nitrogen required for the production of food, fiber, and other plant products is derived from the atmospheric reservoir through biological nitrogen fixation and industrial chemical fixation. The biological fixation process is indirectly dependent upon solar energy that is stored by plants in products of photosynthesis.
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From page 125... ...
An increased supply of biologically fixed nitrogen may be accomplished without excessive use of our energy resources. Furthermore, biological nitrogen fixation takes place in the fields, forests, and other environments where it is used.
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From page 126... ...
1. Teams Assigned to Forage and Grain Legumes A team consisting of agronomists, soil scientists, plant nutritionists, bacteriologists, bacterial geneticists, plant geneticists, plant physiologists, biochemists, and extension specialists (the number to be determined by the need)
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From page 127... ...
should be organized to determine the magnitude and potential importance of biological nitrogen fixation on the roots of grasses and other species of agricultural importance. This team should include plant geneticists, microbiologists, agronomists, and plant physiologists who should direct their efforts toward such goals as determination of the magnitude of nitrogen fixation on the roots of corn, sugar cane, and subtropical forage grasses.
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From page 128... ...
For example, genetic techniques should be employed to attempt to transfer nitrogen-fixing genes into additional bacteria of economic importance and to enhance biological nitrogen-fixing capability of organisms already known to fix nitrogen, by genetically altering control mechanisms that influence nitrogenase synthesis. Efforts should be directed toward the development of mutant strains of rhizobium with advantageous alterations in their specificity toward hosts.
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From page 129... ...
This objective requires collaboration of physical chemists, inorganic chemists with expertise in metal complexes, protein chemists, and enzymologists who are familiar with the detailed properties of nitrogenase. In addition to providing a basic understanding of the biological nitrogen-fixing process, this research offers the possiblity for discovery of new chemical mechanisms of reducing nitrogen.
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From page 130... ...
if justification for this is provided by current and future research.
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From page 131... ...
5: Protein Quality and Quantity and Nutritional Availability. Research should be intensified on the genetic improvement of protein quality and quantity in cereals and cereal legumes, and on the biological verification of the nutritional value of the modified protein.
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From page 132... ...
Environmental stresses on crop plants are a fact of life that must be faced as we seek knowledge and develop technology for meeting our basic needs for sustenance. The genetic approach is ecologically nonpolluting and energy conserving.
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From page 133... ...
IN VITRO TECHNIQUES Rationale Great strides have been made in what is being called the "new botany," that is, the production of new types of plants without recourse to sexual reproduction by using the in vitro techniques of cell and tissue culture. The approaches afforded by these recent advances have great potential for plant breeders.
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From page 134... ...
Another is to control the germination, growth, and development of plant vegetation to synchronize with the rainfall distribution pattern for semi-arid areas. A combination of chemical control over plant growth with development of new plants through in vitro techniques may enhance the potential of both approaches to crop improvement.
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From page 135... ...
Recognition and correction of some mineral deficiencies in animals that stem from deficiency in soils and are reflected in plant composition have increased food production and permitted animal agriculture to expand into new areas (Allaway 1975)
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From page 136... ...
The work of these scientists should be supplemented by nutritionists who investigate the digestibility and nutritional function of elements contained in different plants and who establish plant composition goals based on human and animal requirements for different elements, or on critical concentrations to prevent toxicity from others. PROTEIN QUALITY AND QUANTITY AND NUTRITIONAL AVAILABILITY Rationale In a world in which animal protein will become increasingly costly, plant proteins will have to provide a greater share of the protein intake of people everywhere.
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From page 137... ...
Implementation Successful genetic modification of protein quality and/or quantity can be maximized by interactions between the disciplines of plant genetics, biochemistry, human and animal physiology, human and animal nutrition, and agronomic production when members of each disciplinary area are aware of and appreciate problems of the interacting group. Progress in the successful development of nutritionally superior varieties of basic food crops could be accelerated.
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From page 138... ...
Soybean oil accounts for one-fifth of total edible vegetable oil production, while soybean meal accounts for approximately one-haIf of total world oilseed meal production. The meal in terms of amino acid balance is of the best of the vegetable protein family.
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From page 139... ...
Any significant breakthrough to increase production could profoundly affect the food and feed industry of this country and the world. Implementation Processing technology needs to be implemented which would provide for greater and more flexible use of the byproducts of oilseeds.
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From page 140... ...
GENETIC IMPROVEMENT Rationale Forages (harvested forages, pastures, rangelands, silages, and crop residues) are major crops in terms of total value of production and acreage.
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From page 141... ...
is available for any forage species. While it should not be construed that other potentials for improvement are not present or of considerable magnitude, the potential for genetic improvement of forage and range species is great and centers around four main thrusts.
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From page 142... ...
H Pest resistance also offers great potential for success because of the large number of pests that attack the wide range of forage and range species and cause serious losses.
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From page 143... ...
Similarly, there is opportunity to develop and apply animal management strategies to better use forage and range potential in different environments, types of production systems, and so on. HARVEST AND PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY Rationale Large volumes of forages are harvested annually in humid or irrigated areas of the world.
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From page 144... ...
Whitman (1973) Food Production and the Energy Crisis.
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From page 145... ...
(1972) Plant Growth Substances in Agriculture.
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From page 146... ...
A large part of the earth's land surface can only infrequently produce cultivated crops directly usable by man, but it can produce high cellulose plant material that can be converted economically to food only by animals. Other land, that could regularly produce food crops, finds its greatest economic value in producing forages.
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From page 147... ...
It is important to emphasize that increasing livestock productivity is dependent upon improving the total food production system.
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From page 148... ...
3: Genetically Superior Animals. Research is needed on increasing the reproductive capacity of selected genetically superior mammalian animals and on estrus synchronization of females for insemination.
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From page 149... ...
reduction of periods of reproductive quiescence in genetically superior females. Artificial insemination, which is a long established and viable technique for increasing the number of progeny from genetically superior males, is an expensive technical service.
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From page 150... ...
GENETIC IMPROVEMENT Rationale Artificial insemination in dairy cattle has permitted highly effective selection on males (from one male per five to twenty females, to one male per three thousand or more females)
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From page 151... ...
What is the extent of variation in specific requirements within other animal species? Is it feasible to employ selection techniques to develop strains with lower nutrient requirements?
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From page 152... ...
The feeding value of high fiber crop residues (e.g., straws, corn stalks, and low quality forages) can be increased by chemical treatments, -152
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From page 153... ...
Physical treatments, such as pelleting, are especially helpful in increasing the palatability, intake, and feeding value of low quality, high fiber feeds. DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL Rationale Diseases retard maturity, decrease feed efficiency, increase overhead costs, and result in wastage from condemnation.
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From page 154... ...
Before the usefulness of a method can be fully evaluated, the findings from the fundamental studies required to achieve the three research objectives must be applied to specific diseases in specific hosts, first under controlled conditions and later with field conditions under adequate supervision. The primary criterion for selection of subjects for applied research should be the identification of a specific disease for an official control program.
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From page 155... ...
It may necessitate the assembly, preservation, and inventory of gene pools of food animal species for factors that determine resistance to disease. The long-term costs of controlling disease in terms of labor, drugs, and food safety justify serious consideration of breeding for animals resistant to disease.
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From page 156... ...
Moreover, scientists need to determine whether animal products containing unsaturated fats will be accepted by the public as readily as those with saturated fats. Studies are needed on the effects of feeding products at varying levels and for varying periods of time to experimental animals, and on the application of these to human health.
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From page 157... ...
SAFETY IN FOODS Rationale As new feed additives, animal wastes, by-product feeds, and alternative feed sources are used, the possibility of harmful residues occurring in animal products needs to be guarded against. Research is required on procedures that could safely salvage for human consumption animal protein that would otherwise be destroyed to eradicate animal diseases.
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From page 158... ...
In the U.S. this is a consequence of historical practice whereby the states were given responsibility for and authority over fisheries management out to the limit of territorial waters, while the federal government had no authority except where international fisheries were involved.
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From page 159... ...
1. Underutilized Species The present world catch of marine fish and shellfish is about 60 million metric tons per year, according to data supplied by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
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From page 160... ...
AQUACULTURE Rationale World aquaculture production is 6 million metric tons (8.6 percent of seafood supplies)
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From page 161... ...
(c) Research on disease control of hatchery fish and shellfish production.
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From page 162... ...
prevention and control is presently insufficient for cultured species.
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From page 163... ...
(1975) Opportunities to Increase Food Production from the World's Ocean.
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From page 164... ...
Changing the Fat Content and Composition of Animal Products. Board on Agriculture & Renewable Resources and Food & Nutrition Board, National Research Council.
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From page 165... ...
The major issues involved are the safety of the food supply from pathogens, the maintenance of quality (i.e., no chemical or microbial decay) , the prevention of losses from insects, and the maintenance of nutritional value.
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From page 166... ...
Some important critieria are: increased growth potential, greater biological value in human nutrition, freedom from vicissitudes of weather, higher yields per unit area, utility in food formulation, and economy.
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From page 167... ...
LOSSES OF RAW PRODUCT Rationale Rapid and large increases in available food supplies can be achieved by reducing losses incurred during harvest, slaughter, handling, and storage of the raw product. In addition, an effective reduction in losses and consequently an increase in yields represents a major conservation in energy.
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From page 168... ...
Mechanical stress breaks down the protective barrier, be it natural or artificial, and allows chemical or biochemical reactions or microbial and pest invasion to destroy nutrients and consequently lower quality and acceptability. Environmental stress, such as significant changes in temperature, light, or atmospheric conditions, can induce chemical and biochemical reactions (e.g., enzymatic or nonenzymatic brownings)
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From page 169... ...
2: Food Composition and Quality Assurance. Research and development are needed on rapid and quantitative methods of detection of food components and hazards associated with foods and their toxicological significance.
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From page 170... ...
Food composition and quality assurance of raw and processed foods are dependent on measuring the constituents of foods and their nutritional value chemically or microbiologically. The most important need in this area is the development of rapid, quantitative methods for the determination of protein, fat, carbohydrate, moisture content, water activity, vitamin and mineral content, dietary fiber, protein quality, heavy and trace mineral content, and the presence of intentional or unintentional food additives.
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From page 171... ...
is developed to provide analytical systems to collate, calculate, interpret, and evaluate the research data. Implementation The feasibility of developing a program to measure composition, quality assurance, and safety of our food supply from harvest or slaughter through consumer use is dependent upon three major points: (1)
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From page 172... ...
2: National Transportation Plan. Research is needed for the development of a more detailed national transportation plan as it affects agriculture.
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From page 173... ...
. Implementation To design a more detailed national transportation plan as it affects agriculture, it is essential to know what commodities are being moved, in what quantities, between what points, and at what cost.
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From page 174... ...
Immovable Feast: Transportation, the Energy Crisis, and Rising Food Prices for the Consumer -- Part 2. Committee Print for January 21, 1974, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session.
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