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7 Research Priorities and Recommendations
Pages 269-318

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From page 269... ... The ocean crust is composed of materials that emerge from the interior at spreading centers, is modified as it moves along the surface, and returns to the interior in subduction zones; the continents are built and modified by processes related to the same internal processes that modify the ocean crust The system of interconnecting influences ranges from convection in the interior and the mechanism driving plates along the surface through the interchanges with the hydrosphere and biosphere that result in long-term atmospheric, oceanic, and climatic changes, to the effects of human activity on the geological cycles. Emerging perspectives permit a synthesis of earth science data on the global scale. Read the entire page →
From page 270... ... Selected groups of research opportunities from the wide research areas covered in Chapters 2 through 5 represent the first stage of prioritization. For each of the eight priority themes that arise from the Research Framework, a single top-priority research selection was chosen with a remarkable degree of consensus. Read the entire page →
From page 271... ... The intellectual resources contributed by individual members of the earth science community are the most valuable asset that community can claim. Core support for individual investigators will ensure the diversity in ideas and approaches that characterizes scholarly activity in the United States. Read the entire page →
From page 272... ... Examples are studies of the continental lithosphere by deep drilling, studies of structure by reflection seismology, and establishment of global seismic networks. Science of this sort presents significant challenges because current scientific knowledge is fully exploited while new fundamental science is being developed. Read the entire page →
From page 273... ... Moving from lists to a workable selection presents many problems. An example from mineral resources illustrates the problems of prioritization. Read the entire page →
From page 274... ... The plan is based on four high-priority research themes, with 16 objectives. These research themes extend much deeper into the Earth than was envisaged in the early phases of ocean drilling programs. Read the entire page →
From page 275... ... ODP: Long-Range Plan for the Ocean Drilling Program, NSF, 1990. NASA: Solid Earth Sciences in the 1990s, NASA Technical Memorandum 4256 (three volumes) Read the entire page →
From page 276... ... A similar philosophy is expressed in the 1988 report The Rote of Continental Scientific Drilling in Modern Earth Sciences: Scientific Rationale and Planfor the 1990s (Interagency Coordinating Group for Continental Scientific Drilling, 1988) , based on an international conference and workshop. Read the entire page →
From page 277... ... These PRIORITY THEMES have the greatest promise for achieving the goals and objectives of the solid-earth sciences. They represent the first-priority scientific issues for understanding the Earth, for discovering and managing its resources, and for maintaining its habitability. Read the entire page →
From page 278... ... Lacking such constraints, the committee employed the matrix of priority themes as the basis for an agenda in the solid-earth sciences, an outline of how priorities might be determined through the next decade, depending on the availability of funds. The committee recognized that, in a field as wide as earth system science, research needs to advance on a broad front. Read the entire page →
From page 279... ... specified applications addressing problems related to many different priority themes: � Earthquakes and crustal deformation (III, IV, V, C) � Volcanic and magmatic processes (II, III, IV, V, B Read the entire page →
From page 280... ... Sustain Sufficient Resources A Understand Processes Water, Minerals, Fuels � Soil development and contamination ~ Mineral deposits through time � Glacier ice and its inclusions � Quaternary record � Recent global changes � Paleogeography and paleoclimatology � Paleoceanography � Forcing factors in environmental change � History of life � Discovery and curation of fossils � Abrupt and catastrophic changes � Organic geochemistry � Geochemical cycles: atmospheres and oceans � Organic geochemistry and the origin of � Evolution of crust from mantle petroleum � Fluxes along ocean spreading centers and � Microbiology and soils continental rift systems � Fluxes at convergent plate margins � Mathematical modeling in geochemistry � Analysis of drainage basins � Kinetics of water-rock interaction � Mineral-water interface geochemistry � Analysis of drainage basins � Pore fluids and active tectonics � Water quality and contamination � Magma generation and migration � Modeling water flow Source-transport-accumulation models � Numerical modeling of the depositional environment � In situ mineral resource extraction � Crustal fluids � Landform response to change � Sedimentary basin analysis � Quantification of feedback mechanisms for � Surface and soil isotopic ages landforms � Prediction of mineral resource occurrences � Mathematical modeling of landform changes � Concealed ore bodies � Sequence stratigraphy � Intermediate-scale search for ore bodies � Oceanic lithosphere generation and accretion � Exploration for new petroleum reserves � Continental rift valleys � Advanced production and recovery � Sedimentary basins and continental margins methods � Continental-scale modeling � Coal availability and accessibility � Metasomatism and metamorphism of � Coal petrology and quality lithosphere � Concealed geothermal fields � State of the crust: thermal, strain, stress � Convergent plate boundary lithosphere � History of mountain ranges: depth-temperature-time � Quantitative understanding of earthquake rupture � Rates of recent geological processes � Real-time plate movements and near-surface deformations � Geological prediction � Modern geological maps � Origin of the magnetic field � Core-mantle boundary � Imaging the Earth's interior � Experiments at high pressures and temperatures � Chemical geodynamics � Geodynamic modeling II. Read the entire page →
From page 281... ... Mitigate Geological Hazards Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Landslides D Minimize Global and Environmental Change Assess, Mitigate, Remediate Read the entire page →
From page 282... ... This task requires coordination among federal and state agencies with existing programs in the general field. SOLID-EARTH SCIENCES AND SOCIETY High Priorities � Environmental and biological changes over the past 150 million years since the oldest preserved oceans began to evolve � Environmental and biological changes prior to 150 million years ago � Construct models of the interaction between biogeochemical cycles and the solid earth and climatic cycles � Establish how geochemical cycles operate in the modern world � Modeling fluid flow in sedimentary basins � Understanding microbial influences on fluid chemistry, particularly groundwater � Landform responses to climatic, tectonic, and hydrologic events � Understanding crustal evolution � Establish the origin and temporal variation of the Earth's internally generated magnetic field � Determine the nature of the core-mantle boundary � Sedimentary basin research, particularly for improved resource recovery � Improvement of thermodynamic and kinetic understanding of water-rock interaction and mineral-water interface geochemistry � Development of energy and mineral exploration, production, and assessment strategies C Read the entire page →
From page 283... ... Breakthroughs in science are not predictable, and the priority themes and priority research selections do not pretend to cover all areas where breakthroughs might occur. Many other research areas have high potential for new opportunities and novel developments; committee members know that influential discoveries could emerge from studies that include the following: ~ microbiology and fossil DNA, � bacteria on mineral surfaces and in solutions, � quantum mechanics, � solar physics and its variations, � materials science, � computer science, and � laser technology. Read the entire page →
From page 284... ... These are all the focus of dedicated programs in a variety of agencies, federal and local. Programs and Infrastructure Preeminent among single programs relevant to understanding the environment and biological change on the 2.5-million-year time scale is the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Read the entire page →
From page 285... ... Major Relevant Federal NSF: Ocean Sciences Division-marine geology and geophysics, Ocean Drilling Program; Earth Sciences Programs Division surficial, paleobiology; Atmospheric Sciences Division~limate dynamics. USGS: various programs in Geologic Division and Water Resources Division. Read the entire page →
From page 286... ... Geographic information system approaches are beginning to prove powerful in this kind of data handling, modeling, display, and curation; the use of spatially registered data is likely to grow. Priority Theme II: GIobal Geochemical and Biogeochemical Cycles The principal aim of this priority theme is to determine how, when, and where materials move across the inter faces between mantle Constant recycling of the ingredients and crust, continent ~ AT neological materials accompanies and ocean floor, solid ~ earth and hydrosphere, the Earths evollution. Read the entire page →
From page 287... ... � Establish how geochemical cycles operate in the modern world Understand weathering, soil evolution, diagenesis, nutrient cycling, gas hydrate formation and destruction, volcanic and metamorphic degassing. Requirements High-quality material from the entire rock record, obtained partly from ocean drilling and other core collections and partly by dedicated drilling and outcrop study (e.g., drilling continental margins and basins) Read the entire page →
From page 288... ... Access to high SOLID-EARTH SCIENCES AND SOCIETY speed computers and the ability to handle large data sets are needed. Priority Theme III: Fluids in ant! Read the entire page →
From page 289... ... Most essential nonrenewable resources involve some interaction between the solid earth and flu ids. Research on materials such as water, oil, natural gas, sedimentary ore bodies, geothermal energy, hydrothermally deposited ores, coal, limestone, and gravel all find a place under this priority theme Transfers of energy and material from the realm dominated by internal energy to the surface where solar energy dominates, and then back into the interior, constitute a part of the biogeochemical cycles of the planet. Read the entire page →
From page 290... ... Access to data-handling and high-speed computational facilities for modeling is required, as are adequate core-storage facilities Priority Theme IV: Crustal Dynamics~cean and Continent The principal aim of this priority theme is to understand how the Earth s crust originates and evolves, including the nature and history of the deformations and mass transfer processes responsible for building and modifying the continents, mountain belts, island arcs, and ocean basins. New and continuing studies regarding the origin, structure, mass transfer processes, and history of continents and continental building blocks promise excellent research returns, as discussed in Chapters 2, 3, and 4. Read the entire page →
From page 291... ... International Global seismic networks and geodetic networks, International Commission on the Lithosphere, International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction, Ocean Drilling Program. Selected Recent Reports NRC: Real-Time Earthquake Monitoring (1991) Read the entire page →
From page 292... ... At present these are practicable only in places like the Afar and Iceland, where active "oceanic" crustal deformation is taking place above sea level, but there exists a possibility of developing underwater geodetic techniques. The various methods of studying active deformation of the ocean floor are of different utility for spreading centers and convergent boundaries. Read the entire page →
From page 293... ... Laboratory deformation studies also are needed. Priority Theme V: Core and Mantle Dynamics The principal aim of this priority theme is to understand! Read the entire page →
From page 294... ... The gravity field, especially as determined from spacecraft in low Earth orbit, contributes to our understanding of the mass distribution, and hence the convective flow, in the mantle. Measurements of the surface heat flow show that the flux is dominated by the convective transfer of hot material to the surface at ocean spreading centers, but quantifying heat transfer from mantle plumes and discriminating between heat generated within the The operation of the Earth's internal engine is the main drivingforcefor many geological processes, some of which are simultaneously influenced by the external engine, diriven by solar energy. Read the entire page →
From page 295... ... A satellite experiment in low Earth orbit (less than 200 km from the surface) could play a role, and airborne regional gravity is becoming a possibility with GPS TABLE 7.10 Priority Theme V: Core and Mantle Dynamics positioning. Read the entire page →
From page 296... ... High-speed computational capabilities are critical for handling the vast amounts of data involved in mantle studies, both for processing and modeling. Priority Theme B: To Sustain Sufficient Natural Resources The principal aim of this priority theme is to develop dynamic, physical, and chemical methods of determining the locations and extent of nonrenewable resources and of exploiting those resources using environmentally responsible techniques. Read the entire page →
From page 297... ... The countries with the strongest mineral resource positions a decade or two from now wait be those that TABLE 7.11 Priority Theme B: To Sustain Sufficient Natural Resources 297 To ensure a continuous and reasonable supply of water, energy, and mineral resourcesfor the nation and the world, we need comprehensive understanding of the Earths crust and know in the best detail the structure of the upper 10 km oftheir continental crust. It is only a matter of time until global shortages of petroleum resources develop. Read the entire page →
From page 298... ... � Define and characterize potential volcanic hazards Real-time volcano monitoring of seismicity, surface deformation, thermal and infrared measurements, gaseous emissions. Requirements Seismic networks; strong-motion instrumentation; fault studies, including trenching. Read the entire page →
From page 299... ... Programs and Infrastructure Federal and state programs for Theme B are listed in Table 7.11. Industry is heavily involved in these endeavors, of course, and much of the research in energy and mineral resources is driven by economic and political factors Priority Theme C: To Mitigate Geological Hazards The principal aim of this priority theme is to determine the nature of geological hazarc3s earthquakes, volcanoes, lancislicles, soil erosion, floods, hazardous materials (asbestos) Read the entire page →
From page 300... ... Paleoseismology has a special need for SOLID-EARTH SCIENCES AND SOCIETY the excavation of trenches across fault zones to characterize past seismic activity. Otl~er IIigl~ Priorities For Priority Theme C Table 7.12 lists two highpriority research areas: defining and characterizing areas of landslide hazard and defining and characterizing potential volcanic hazard; both are considered in Chapter 5. Read the entire page →
From page 301... ... Research is growing, too, but it is not clear that the full expertise of the solid-earth science community is being involved on a large enough scale. Top Priority, Tl~eme D: Develop the Ability to Remediate Polluted Groundwater The need, the opportunity, the potential for success, and the scientific challenge represented by thorough understanding of the environment and how polluted groundwater might be remec3iatecI, particularly with microbial methods. Read the entire page →
From page 302... ... . Recommendation Establish the ability to remediate polluted groundwaters on local and regional scales, emphasizing microbial methods. Read the entire page →
From page 303... ... The research priority themes for which partic ular facilities and equipment are most relevant are indicated in the table. Space-Based Instruments and Programs Satellite-obtained electromagnetic spectral imagery has been widely used by solid-earth scientists since the first Landsat was launched in 1972. Read the entire page →
From page 304... ... , GPS navigation, work in remote areas, and excavation, especially trenching Continental drilling: shallow <1 km, deep 1 to 5 km, ultra-deep >5 hen Sea-Surface-Based Instruments and Facilities Research vessels: seismic, gravity, magnetic, heat flow and other instruments, side-look and multibeam sonar, dredging and other sampling Submersibles: manned and remotely operated Ocean drilling capability Laboratory Instrumentation and Facilities Advanced instrumentation for chemical and isotopic analyses of solids, liquids, and gases, including in situ and small-particle analyses Access to accelerator and synchroton radiation facilities Equipment for very-high-pressure experiments Large-volume, high-pressure instrumentation Advanced organic chemical and isotopic analyses Data Bases, Maps, and Collections Global digital topographic data sets for land and sea Subsurface data banks: seismic, potential field, bore-hole cores, cuttings, and logs Geological and other surface maps Physical and chemical properties of earth materials Museum curation and storage of fossils, rocks, minerals, rock cores, . Read the entire page →
From page 305... ... Most airborne geophysical studies are flown at low elevations, and the possible role of robot aircraft in this kind of lowlevel flight has not been fully explored. Land-Surface-Based Instruments and Programs Seismometers of various kinds are important for addressing most of the priority themes recognized in this report. Read the entire page →
From page 306... ... Continental scientific drilling has developed rapidly in the past decade, and its unique role in solid-earth science research is becoming well defined. Federal government efforts in the United States have responded to the Continental Scientific Drilling and Exploration Act of 1988. Read the entire page →
From page 307... ... A recent NRC review of the program recognizes the scientific value of continued ocean drilling and recommends broadening participation, ensuring breadth in future activities, and focusing on the establishment of"a highly accurate geochronologic framework for studies of past ocean processes and rates as well as for an optimum approach to drilling technology." Laboratory Instrumentation and Facilities The development and use of advanced instruments are critical to the solid-earth sciences. The need for such instrumentation and facilities extends to every one of the priority themes developed in this report. Read the entire page →
From page 308... ... In addition to terrestrial materials, there are unique collections of lunar rocks and meteorites that yield progressively more secrets about their inaccessible sources as time passes and instrumental techniques are improved Other materials that need proper curating are the ice cores drilled from Antarctica and other ice sheets and the huge library of deep-sea cores A large proportion of the information that is important for implementation of the priority areas identified in this report is spatial Maps present a peculiar problem, although perhaps only a temporary one Existing geological maps, for example, embody a huge potential resource. Although optical scanners can be used to digitize information from maps, the procedure is not yet very reliable, and inordinate amounts of time-consuming verification and attribute coding are demanded A simple distinction can therefore be made between acquisition of data in digital form and digitizing existing data sets The coming decade will perhaps be one of SOLID-EARTH SCIENCES AND SOCIETY transition. Read the entire page →
From page 309... ... Geographic information systems, which are widely used in land and environmental management, are relevant to all of the committee's priority themes. There will be greater use in areas where such systems are already important, as well as broad extension of their use through much of the solidearth sciences. Read the entire page →
From page 310... ... A rough guide might be this: the seismic-exploration industry worldwide is expected to rise to about $5 billion by the mid-1990s. If about 1 percent of this sum goes to related earth science research, industry support would be about $50 million Other estimates indicate that $100 million to $275 million is expended annually on oil and gas research in the United States in both the public and the private sectors Although most of the research is in-house, both mining and petroleum industries historically have supported research projects conducted in ~niversitv cl~n~rtments and have collaborated in research with federal agencies (e g, Bureau of Mines and DOE) Read the entire page →
From page 311... ... lSO atlOn praCtlCeS. There is need for a more detailed assessment of the extent to which the priority themes identified in this report will be addressed in federal programs in the coming decade. Read the entire page →
From page 312... ... High-priority topics are: ~r - - c ~A _ ^ ~ _ ~ ^ ~ ~ ^ _ A A ~ ^ 6_ ~ ~ ~^ ~ ^ -I_ 4 A ^ ~ � to construct models of the interaction between biogeochemical cycles and the solid earth and climatic cycles and � to establish how geochemical cycles operate in the modern world. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATION 3 (Priority Theme III) Read the entire page →
From page 313... ... RESEARCH RECOMMENDATION 6 (Priority Theme B) : A dense network of water quality and quantity measurements, including resampling at appropriate intervals, should be established as a basis for scientific advances. Read the entire page →
From page 314... ... These groups should also be interacting with professional societies, state and local agencies, other nations, and international organizations The series of recommendations that follow is intended to provide guidance for the diverse communities involved in research and practice in the solid-earth sciences in the coming decade. Read the entire page →
From page 315... ... graphic Information systems along with the Global Positioning System, there are major opportunities to apply the computer revolution to the solid-earth sciences. It is time to integrate the vast amounts of solid-earth science data in nondigital form, like maps, with the exponentially growing digital data sets. Read the entire page →
From page 316... ... Groups involved in U.S. foreign policy decisions should be aware ofthe importance ofthe earth sciences in global agreements about issues such as waste management, acid rain, hazard reduction, energy and mineral resources, and desertification. Read the entire page →
From page 317... ... NRC (1987~. Earth Materials Research: Report of a Workshop on Physics and Chemistry of Earth Materials, Committee on Physics and Chemistry of Earth Materials, Board on Earth Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 122 PP NRC (1987~. Read the entire page →
From page 318... ... Interagency Coordinating Group for Continental Scientific Drilling (1991~. The United States Continental Scientific Drilling Program, Third Annual Report to Congress, 35 pp. Read the entire page →

From page 269...

... The ocean crust is composed of materials that emerge from the interior at spreading centers, is modified as it moves along the surface, and returns to the interior in subduction zones; the continents are built and modified by processes related to the same internal processes that modify the ocean crust The system of interconnecting influences ranges from convection in the interior and the mechanism driving plates along the surface through the interchanges with the hydrosphere and biosphere that result in long-term atmospheric, oceanic, and climatic changes, to the effects of human activity on the geological cycles. Emerging perspectives permit a synthesis of earth science data on the global scale.

7 Research Priorities and Recommendations Pages 269-318

7 Research Priorities and Recommendations
Pages 269-318