Minding the Helm Marine Navigation and Piloting (1994) / Chapter Skim
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7 A HUMAN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING
7 A HUMAN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON MARINE NAVIGATION AND PILOTING
Pages 271-296
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From page 271... ...
, induces rather than reduces the potential for human error. Recent innovations in the marine navigation and piloting system to improve C31 include changes in bridge organization such as bridge teams, the one-person bridge, and the pilot-copilot bridge configurations.
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From page 272... ...
INTRODUCTION Although human performance is recognized as a contributing factor in most marine accidents, the understanding of human systems (box /-1) and humanmachine interactions that is needed to guide improvements in human performance as this pertains to marine navigation and piloting is not well developed (Box 7-23.
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From page 274... ...
The inputs to and elements of the marine navigation and piloting system include aspects of the operating environment such as markets, regulation, traffic, technology, and shipping company policies and tasks to be performed in this environment. The organizational processes of interest include decision making, problem solving, communication, conflict resolution, and the evolution of organizational structure and culture.
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From page 275... ...
Because pilotage is so route-specific and there are few, if any, arrangements to shift pilots between pilotage jurisdictions for foreign trade vessels, major shifts in shipping business between competing ports could affect the near-term availability of qualified marine pilots. Perrow (1984)
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From page 276... ...
How well the language and culture of the marine navigation and piloting system reflect this more flexible approach affects the safety benefits that can be obtained from the use of high-technology systems and measures to improve human performance. Shipboard Command and Control Organization Shipboard navigation and piloting tasks are affected by interactions throughout the marine navigation and piloting system, including the operating and management practices of marine transportation companies.
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From page 277... ...
. Communication of problems detected by subordinates and solutions they may propose can be stifled by the rigidity of the traditional bridge organization and culture unless the operating company, through the master, has fostered a more receptive bridge team communications environment.
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From page 278... ...
This rather fuzzy division of authority and responsibility has contributed to some accidents (NTSB, 1988b,c, 1989a, 1993~. Given the organization of the marine navigation and piloting system, the dominance of traditional bridge configurations, and legal precedents, it is likely that this peculiar relationship will continue indefinitely.
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From page 279... ...
Steering orders are received directly from the master or pilot if they are on the bridge or by relay through the mate when conning is being conducted from the bridge wing. On ships designed with bridge control of the propulsion system, shaft revolutions and direction are usually controlled by the watch officer under orders from conning officer (normally the pilot or master)
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From page 280... ...
In practice, team training usually involves licensed ship's officers. Marine pilots sometimes participate in bridge team training, usually in cooperation with specific shipping companies, for example, in advance of port calls by a new class of ships.
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From page 281... ...
Navy has been evaluating such concepts from a defense perspective for a number of years. One published report found significantly improved track keeping and reduced stress and fatigue for one-person bridge operations as compared with traditional bridge manning and operational models (Schuffel et al., 19891.
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From page 282... ...
Other examples of this model may be found on hydrofoils, surface-effect craft, and other very fast vessels that simply could not tolerate the communication delays and potential for errors inherent in the traditional bridge model. In its hydrofoil development program to facilitate the transition to hands-on ship control, the U.S.
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From page 283... ...
By artificially recreating real-world conditions, simulation permits individuals or bridge teams to develop or refine skills in shiphandling; bridge resources management; and in some cases, interaction with engine rooms and VTS systems. Simulation is used to aid in the training of VTS watchstanders in a few countries (not the United States)
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From page 284... ...
The success of bridge operations is highly dependent on accurate and timely communications and the ability of each person involved in bridge team operations, including the pilot, to anticipate the information needs of the others. Error Reduction Since error rates in communication are among the highest quoted, error reduction efforts would best be directed at reducing the number of required human communications.
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From page 285... ...
Electronic charting systems and integrated bridge consoles, for example, are designed specifically for this purpose; they can be employed to reduce the number of operators required and the dependence on person-to-person communications. On the other hand, these systems increase the task responsibilities of the remaining bridge team members and can increase task loading if not designed to accommodate the changes in the functions performed.
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From page 286... ...
Automating Error-Prone Functions Many of the routine administrative tasks performed on the traditional bridge can be automated relatively easily using available technologies. In traditional approaches to human-machine allocation decisions, tasks are assigned based on functional analyses of the capabilities of humans and machines, and of the required tasks.
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From page 287... ...
Software-based systems to automate appropriate bridge functions are being developed. These developments warrant a new and critical review of the traditional bridge operations model to the extent that they can provide costjustified improvements in safety and efficiency.
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From page 288... ...
By combining these new autopilots with real-time information on cross-track error from electronic charting systems, a level of track-keeping precision can be achieved that argues for replacing the helmsman with technology. If the helmsman position is eliminated, the trade-off is that either the master, a mate, or a qualified crewmember may have to handsteer under some operating conditions, adding to task loading.
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From page 289... ...
(Perrow, 1984) Perrow's analysis focuses on the system's complexity and assumes tight coupling in potentially dangerous situations; however it does not address the loose coupling within the marine industry, much less within the marine naviga
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From page 290... ...
These decisions are made in stressful environments, often after lengthy cargo watches, by an ever-smaller bridge team.
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From page 291... ...
The social-psychological research on decision making focuses primarily on how individuals make decisions in response to group characteristics (Scott, 1992; Simon, 19563. Some attention has been devoted to distributed decision making, which in many ways is characteristic of the marine industry.
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From page 292... ...
An organizational analysis may focus either on one organization (such as a shipping company) or on the network of organizations constituting the marine system (such as tugboat companies, passenger ferry companies, shipping companies, and recreational users)
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From page 293... ...
For example, the nature of desirable feedback, and how to make best use of it, is not defined clearly within the marine industry. At the organizational level, to the extent that distributed decision making is desirable, it is important to understand existing communication networks in ports and along waterways.
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From page 294... ...
Recent Human Factors Research and Development The Coast Guard, responding to recommendations to improve its capabilities to address human performance in marine safety and the Exxon Valdez accident, initiated a human factors program. The agency developed a comprehensive
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From page 295... ...
The agency is also sponsoring an ongoing assessment of ship-bridge simulation training. Although the research and development budgets of the Maritime Administration have been severely reduced over the past decade, the agency has continued to sponsor research in advanced navigation technology relevant to human performance.
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