Under the Influence? Drugs and the American Work Force (1994) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
Part I: Scope of Alcohol and Other Drug Use
Part I: Scope of Alcohol and Other Drug Use
Pages 27-104
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From page 29... ...
(1992) reviewed the possible risk factors for youth 29
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From page 30... ...
Psychobehavioral influences include early and persistent problem behaviors, academic failure, a low degree of commitment to school, alienation and rebelliousness, attitudes favorable to drug use, and early onset of drug use. And biogenetic factors include the possible heritability of a vulnerability to drug abuse and a psychophysiological susceptibility to the effects of drugs.
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From page 31... ...
Those at genetic risk for alcohol and other drug abuse may inherit a biological vulnerability to the hedonic effects of the drug, so for them drug effects are more attractive than for others. They may also not experience the withdrawal effects as severely as those not at risk (i.e., less likelihood of hangover)
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From page 32... ...
Social factors that determine the availability and the attractiveness of alcohol and other drugs to particular individuals are important to this progression, and highly addictive drugs, such as crack cocaine, may alter this sequence of drug progression. Thus it may be that the severe addictive potential and wide and inexpensive availability of crack may lead to its being used earlier in the sequence than other less addictive illicit drugs or even licit drugs.
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From page 33... ...
Protective factors, in contrast to risk factors for alcohol and other drug use, reduce the likelihood and level of drug use and abuse. Protective factors are those psychosocial influences that limit or reduce drug involvement (Newcomb, 1992~.
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From page 34... ...
The term on-the job drug use is ambiguous and can mean different things in different studies. Taken literally, the phrase refers only to drugs used at the work site while work is or should be going on.
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From page 35... ...
There may also be a group of individuals who use one drug at work and other drugs at home or away from the work site. Researchers have only begun to confront the degree of correspondence between a general proclivity to use alcohol and other drugs and the use of alcohol or other drugs on the job.
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From page 36... ...
This is particularly true for teenagers and for those who use illicit drugs (i.e., marijuana, cocaine) , but it has been documented among young adults (Newcomb and gentler, 1988a,b)
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From page 37... ...
Thus it appears that workplace alcohol and other drug use implies a degree of drug involvement somewhere between that implied by marijuana and cocaine use, on one hand, and cocaine and harder drug use, on the other. The different scaling results for men and women suggest that using alcohol and other drugs at work occurs earlier in the sequence of drug involvement for men than women.
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From page 38... ...
has presented a comprehensive set of both cross-sectional and prospective survey findings on the correlates and predictors of alcohol and other drug use in the workplace. He examined many personal, social, and work-related factors in terms of their associations with using alcohol and other drugs on the job.
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From page 39... ...
concluded that "though statistically significant in some cases, the relationship between work conditions and drug/alcohol consumption appears to be quite small." Over a decade earlier, Herold and Conlon (1981:337) reached the same conclusion regarding the association between work factors and alcohol abuse, stating that "unequivocal evidence of such linkages is scarce." There are, however, problems with this general conclusion, which mean that the work environment cannot be ruled out as a contributing or interac
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From page 40... ...
More comprehensive analyses and tests of more realistic theories are necessary to sort out the relative impact of work environment and individual traits on worker alcohol and other drug use and the ways in which variables in these domains relate to each other. Nature Versus Nurture in Alcohol and Other Drug Use on the Job Data on different levels of alcohol and other drug use across occupations that are discussed in Chapter 3 raise an important issue.
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From page 41... ...
In a study of prevalence rates for lifetime cocaine use (Trinkoff et al., 1990) reported that among 6 job categories studied, the skilled labor category had the highest level of lifetime cocaine use (12 percent)
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From page 42... ...
Women were only slightly lower than men in their rate of using alcohol. The High School Senior follow-up survey revealed greater variation in marijuana use at work.
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Recommendation: Research is still needed to sort out the relative impact of the work environment and individual traits on workers' alcohol and other drug use. This research should test realistic theories involving such potential critical variables such as drug availability, local norms, and work stress and attending to such complexities as interaction effects can reverse causation.
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E 1987 Strategic Planning for Workplace Drug Abuse Problems.
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Pickens, eds., Vulnerability to Drug Abuse. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
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G Alcoholism, drug abuse, job stress: what small business can do.
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Felix-Ortiz 1992 Multiple protective and risk factors for drug use and abuse: cross-sectional and prospective findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63:280-296.
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gentler 1988 Structure of drug use behaviors and consequences among young adults: multitraitmultimethod assessment of frequency? quantity, work site, and problem substance use.
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and their follow-up component on college-age youth and young adults; the National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) ; and the Worldwide Surveys of Substance Abuse and Health Behaviors Among Military Personnel (MWS)
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Drug-testing results are readily available in large numbers. Approximately 100 laboratories certified by the National Institute on Drug Abuse conduct much of the work site drug testing.
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Most drug testing is designed to detect between five and eight drugs. Most work site urine testing protocols, for example, do not test for alcohol; thus, no reliable test-based infor Moreover, positive urine test results indicate only that a person has recently used a particular drug, typically, in the past 2 to 7 days, varying with the drug tested.
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From page 52... ...
But because of the nature of these two data sources, far more could be learned if individual survey data designed to capture demographic traits and worker attitudes could be combined with drug test results of the millions of people tested for drugs each year. Interestingly, both demographic and attitudinal/personality data are often routinely collected in the preemployment setting, in which most jobrelated drug testing occurs.
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From page 53... ...
Prevalence and Trends in Illicit Drug Use Over the past 10 years there have been appreciable declines in the use of a number of illicit drugs among high school seniors and over the past 5 years (for which data are available) among young adults more generally.
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If/ _~ ~ ~ Heavy Alcohol Use (Last 2 We - )
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l l l 88 89 Year of Survey 86 87 55 90 91 FIGURE 3.2 Trends in alcohol and other drug use among young adults ages 19-28, past 12 months, 1975-1991. SOURCE: Unpublished data from the High School Senior Surveys (19921.
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smokes a half-pack a day or more. in the last 6 years, National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse The National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse (NHSDA)
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| FIGURE 3.3 Trends in the percentage reporting use of all illicit drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes in the past month, by age group, 1979-1991. SOURCE: Data from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 1993~.
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From page 58... ...
To explore alcohol and other drug use among the work force further, the Kopstein and Gfroerer analyses were replicated using data from the 1990 NHSDA. These data examine the prevalence of current use of selected illicit drugs and heavy alcohol among employed and unemployed persons age 18 and older.
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SOURCE: Data from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 1993)
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60 Cal x A V)
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Some 20 percent of male construction workers reported using one or more illicit drugs in the past month, 18 percent used marijuana, 14 percent used cocaine, and 26 percent were heavy drinkers. Rates of illicit drug use were relatively low among male professional, manufacturing, and transportation workers.
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64 o oo Cal Cal o x Cal .
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Department of Defense worldwide surveys of military personnel provide data comparable to the High School Senior surveys and the National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse for active-duty military personnel stationed across the world. Surveys were conducted in 1980, 1982, 1985, 1988, and 1992.
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From page 66... ...
In 1980, 21 percent of military personnel reported heavy drinking, compared with 15 percent in 1992. Although heavy drinking does not by itself constitute alcohol abuse, it does indicate drinking levels that are likely to have detrimental consequences, particularly in a group that works with weapons, vehicles, and other dangerous equipment.
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From page 67... ...
Among military personnel whose spouses were not with them, illicit drug use rates were similar to what they were among unmarried personnel, and rates of heavy alcohol use were above what they were for those who had spouses present. Cigarette smoking was also associated with education and marital status.
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From page 68... ...
68 DRUGS AND THE AMERICAN WORK FORCE TABLE 3.5 Prevalence of Alcohol and Other Drug Use Among Military Personnel by Sociodemographic Characteristics (in percent) Sociodemographic Any Illicit Heavy Cigarette Characteristic Drug Use Alcohol Use Smoking Age 20 and under 12.9 24.5 40.S 21-25 10.3 22.5 36.4 26-34 3.8 1 2.3 34.4 35 and older 1.9 7.0 32.0 Sex Male 6.7 17.1 35.7 Female 3.4 4.4 31.5 Race/ethnicity White 6.6 16.5 37.4 Black 4.2 10.3 29.0 Hispanic 8.9 17.9 31.6 Other 4.4 13.7 32.9 Education High school graduate/GED 9.0 22.4 44.2 Some college 5.5 13.2 35.5 College graduate or higher 1.9 4.7 14.9 Marital status Not married 9.9 23.7 37.6 Married, unaccompanied by spouse 7.1 15.8 35.4 Married, accompanied by spouse 3.6 9.5 33.3 Total 6.2 15.2 35.0 NOTE: Prevalence of any illicit drug use is measured for the past 12 months; heavy alcohol use and cigarette smoking are measured for the past 30 days.
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From page 69... ...
As shown, 6 percent of military personnel reported drinking at these times. The percentage using alcohol was slightly lower among officers than enlisted personnel, indicating that the former had a somewhat lower exposure to the risk of alcohol-related problems at work.
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Standardized comparisons showed that military personnel were significantly less likely than civilians to report having used any illicit drugs during the past 30 days (8 compared with 24 percent) , but they were significantly more likely to be heavy drinkers (21 compared with 11 percent)
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Thus, to examine hard-core users, alternative sources of data should be investigated. Perhaps the best information available to examine the extent and trends in the use of heroin and cocaine among hard-core users is the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN)
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SOURCES: Data from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 1993) ; unpublished data from the High School Senior Survey (1992)
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Heavy drug use is likely to prevent hardcore users from becoming productive workers, so such users may not be actively employed in the work force. WORK SITE DRUG TESTING Increasing proportions of the work force have undergone urine tests for drug use in recent years.
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From page 74... ...
That is, spiked samples will be reported as positive and will inevitably inflate the estimated positive rate. Background The most comprehensive and up-to-date source of information on work site drug-testing results is a study funded by NIDAi that summarizes test results collected quarterly from a sample of seven NIDA-certified laboratories that currently report on over 300,000 tests per quarter.
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From page 75... ...
· Return-to-duty unannounced testing of employees who are returning to work after a leave related to drug use. Findings Of the nearly 2 million test results obtained from October 1990 through March 1992, almost 4 percents or nearly 70,000 were positive for one or more illicit drugs.
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From an epidemiologic perspective, the advantage of the NIDA-5 test panel is that it is a standardized measure of drug use. Any differences in positive rates by reason, over time, or across regions or industries will not reflect variations in the test methods.
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Reason for Testing FIGURE 3.8 Positive rates for work site urine testing by reason for testing, October 1990-March 1992. SOURCE: Unpublished data from the NIDA Drug Testing Laboratories analysis.
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From page 78... ...
Results from random testing without notification provide the best indicator of the actual prevalence of regular drug use among workers. Approximately 1 in 40 employees tested positive (3 percent)
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The highest positive rate for cocaine has consistently been in the Northeast. Consistent with data from self-reports based on the 1990 National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse (NHSDA)
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From page 80... ...
-·.-.. Any drug __- Marijuana -- -- Cocaine 1.00 0.50 _ 0.00 1 1 1 1, 1 Fourth 1990 First 1991 Second 1991 Third 1991 Fourth 1991 First 1992 Quarter FIGURE 3.11 Positive rates by quarter for work site drug testing.
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From page 81... ...
Alcohol is generally not included in employment drug test panels. Random testing results, which provide the best indicator of recent worker illicit drug use suggest that approximately 1 in 40 workers uses illicit drugs at a given point in time.
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From page 82... ...
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From page 85... ...
Some 77 percent reported using alcohol during the
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From page 86... ...
. Overall, 75 percent of the housing authority employees reported using alcohol in the last year, 38 percent reported weekly use or more, and half reported getting drunk in the last year, with 15 percent getting drunk at least weekly.
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From page 87... ...
Rates of positive test results were considerably higher for contract workers than for SONGS employees. Positive rates for SONGS employees remained under 2 percent for the entire study period but were more variable among the contract workers, reaching a high of 5 percent.
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From page 88... ...
individual interviews off the work site. Urine samples were also collected from all subjects at the time of the self-report data collection.
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From page 89... ...
As was mentioned in Chapter 2, it is often assumed rather than proven that those who use alcohol and other drugs away from work will also do so on the job or in close enough proximity to affect workplace performance. Studies showing the prevalence of alcohol and other drug use by workers and job applicants are thought to shed light on alcohol and other drug use in the workplace, although they do not specifically or necessarily relate to this problem.
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From page 90... ...
8 percent of public shore workers admitted using alcohol and less than 0.5 percent reported using an illicit drug; and (4) 7 percent of public fleet employees reported using alcohol and 2 percent admitted using an illicit drug.
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From page 91... ...
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From page 94... ...
(1991) examined responses from about 120,000 transportation employees and found that 6 percent had used alcohol at times that would interfere with their job, and 3 percent reported a similar use of illicit drugs.
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From page 95... ...
Illicit drugs have never been used at work by a large proportion of the work force, and the proportion has decreased substantially in recent years. Marijuana was the second most prevalent drug, with use at work reported by 5 percent of the men and 1 percent of the women in 1991.
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From page 96... ...
In general protective services workers (police, fire fighters) show very low rates of use at work, and skilled workers show relatively high rates, with little variation across the other categories (Table 3.113.
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From page 97... ...
. marijuana than alcohol in the workplace is surprising, since alcohol is in general the most frequently used drug at the work site.
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From page 98... ...
(3) Heavy alcohol use has been relatively stable over the past several years; rates of heavy drinking have been notably high among young adult men, especially those in the military and among workers in such industries as construction, transportation, and wholesale goods.
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From page 99... ...
Although the workplace offers a unique opportunity to obtain leverage on the alcohol and other drug problems of some users, there are many serious alcohol and other drug abusers who are not regularly employed, if they are employed at all. In 1990 approximately 7 percent of workers reported having used an illicit drug and approximately 6 percent reported having drunk heavily in the past month, compared with 14 percent and 6 percent, respectively, for the unemployed.
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From page 100... ...
Marsden, and G.H. Dunteman 1992 1992 Worldwide Survey of Substance Abuse and Health Behaviors Among Military Personnel.
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From page 101... ...
Rockville, Md.: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Lehman, W.E.K., and D.D.
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From page 102... ...
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 1993 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Main Findings 1991. Rockville, Md.: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
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From page 103... ...
Ryan, and E.J. Orav 1990 The efficacy of preemployment drug screening for marijuana and cocaine in predicting employment outcome.
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