Monitoring Educational Equity (2019) / Chapter Skim
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5 Indicators of Disparities in Access to Educational Opportunities
5 Indicators of Disparities in Access to Educational Opportunities
Pages 81-118
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From page 81... ...
In Appendix C the committee provides illustrations of the data sources and methods that could be used to develop appropriate measures for our proposed indicators. DOMAIN D: EXTENT OF RACIAL, ETHNIC, AND ECONOMIC SEGREGATION School segregation -- both racial and economic -- poses one of the most formidable barriers to educational equity.
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From page 82... ...
82 MONITORING EDUCATIONAL EQUITY TABLE 5-1 Proposed Indicators of Disparities in Access to Educational Opportunities DOMAIN INDICATORS CONSTRUCTS TO MEASURE D 8 Extent of Disparities in Students' Concentration of poverty in schools Racial, Ethnic, Exposure to Racial, Racial segregation within and across and Economic Ethnic, and Economic schools Segregation Segregation E 9 Equitable Access Disparities in Access Availability of licensed pre-K programs to High-Quality to and Participation Participation in licensed pre-K programs Early Learning in High-Quality Pre-K Programs Programs F 10 Equitable Access Disparities in Access to Teachers' years of experience to High-Quality Effective Teaching Teachers' credentials, certification Curricula and Instruction Racial and ethnic diversity of the teaching force 11 Disparities in Access Availability and enrollment in advanced, to and Enrollment in rigorous course work Rigorous Coursework Availability and enrollment in Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, and dual enrollment programs Availability and enrollment in gifted and talented programs 12 Disparities in Availability and enrollment in coursework Curricular Breadth in the arts, social sciences, sciences, and technology 13 Disparities in Access to Access to and participation in formalized High-Quality Academic systems of tutoring or other types of Supports academic supports, including special education services and services for English learners
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From page 83... ...
There is evidence that racially integrated schools are associated with greater life outcomes for all students, including higher college enrollment and success, higher lifetime earnings, a more diverse circle of friends and living arrangements in adulthood, and the important career skill of working with people from diverse backgrounds (Philips, Gormley, and Lowenstein, 2009; iegel-Hawley, 2012; Wells, Fox, and Cordova-Cobo, 2016) .1 S Indicator 8: Disparities in Students' Exposure to Racial, Ethnic, and Economic Segregation Racial segregation -- as measured by how evenly black and Hispanic students are distributed among U.S.
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From page 84... ...
or "hyper segregation" (George and Darling-Hammond, 2019) , these factors have led to circumstances in which black and Hispanic students are more likely than their white and Asians peers to be in schools with high levels of students from economically disadvantaged families.
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From page 85... ...
. 2 The definition is based on identifying low-income students as those eligible for free or r educed-price lunch under the National School Lunch Program, sorting K–12 schools according to the percentages of eligible students, separating out high schools, and dividing the high schools into quintiles, which we reference throughout the report (ExcelinEd, 2018)
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From page 86... ...
Proposed Measures for Indicator 8 The committee proposes an indicator that is focused on the difference in poverty rates in schools attended by poor and nonpoor students, by students from different racial groups, by English-language learners, and by students with immigrant or foreign-born parents. Such an indicator is readily interpretable and has historically been relatively straightforward to measure so long as school districts report reliable school-level counts of students eligible for free or reduced-price meals.3 The committee also proposes an indicator of racial segregation within and across schools.
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From page 87... ...
. Investments by federal, state, and local programs have increased considerably in the past 30 years in efforts to reduce enrollment gaps and improve access to high-quality early childhood education for disadvantaged populations.
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From page 88... ...
Many stipulate fundamental components necessary for operation, but do not address the comprehensive developmental and learning needs of preschoolers. Observational measures of classroom instructional quality are somewhat stronger predictors of children's learning, although observations are
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From page 89... ...
Proposed Measures for Indicator 9 The committee proposes that Indicator 9 be measured in two ways: (1) the availability of licensed early childhood education programs and (2)
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From page 90... ...
Excellence in academic programming and resources needs to include not only equitable access to AP courses and other advanced coursework, but also meeting the academic needs of students on the other end of the achievement distribution. The adequacy of formal academic supports for students who are struggling to achieve is at least as important as fair access to enrichment opportunities for students at the top.
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From page 91... ...
Indicator 10: Disparities in Access to Effective Teaching This committee is not the first to recognize the important role teachers play in promoting student learning. Indeed, there is widespread agreement that teachers are the most important in-school factor contributing to student outcomes (Aaronson, Barrow, and Sander, 2007; McCaffrey et al., 2004, 2009; Nye, Konstantopoulos, and Hedges, 2004; Rivkin, Hanushek, and Kain, 2005; Rockoff, 2004; Sanders and Rivers, 1996)
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From page 92... ...
These strategies include observational measures, in which the supervisor or other expert rates teachers' pedagogical quality according to key dimensions thought to characterize effective instruction, and student survey measures, in which students rate teachers' instructional quality along similar key dimensions. There is a wealth of information about these measures, including guidance for developing, implementing, and using these kinds of measures (see, e.g., Cantrell and Kane, 2013; Gitomer and Zisk, 2015; Kane, Kerr, and Pianta, 2014)
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From page 93... ...
. Of the nearly 5 million English learners nationwide, 3 percent attend schools where more than 20 percent of teachers are in their first year of teaching, compared with 2 percent of non-English learner students.
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From page 94... ...
Nearly 7 percent of black students attend schools in which more than 20 percent of the teachers have not yet met all state certification and licensing requirements, com pared with 3.7 percent of Latinos and slightly less than 2 percent of white students. Teacher Diversity The racial and ethnic distribution of students enrolled in public school has been gradually changing over the past few decades.
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From page 95... ...
Though more research is needed, the existing evidence suggests that the diversity of a school's teaching staff and its match to the student body merits inclusion in a system of equity indicators. Proposed Measures for Indicator 10 Measures for Indicator 10 should include teachers' years of experience; teachers' credentials for the subjects they teach; and diversity of the teaching force to which students are exposed.
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From page 96... ...
Inequitable access to rigorous coursework may be an especially serious issue for students with disabilities and English learners. Though federal law encourages the inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms, they are often excluded from advanced or honors coursework.11 Even in general education classrooms, students with disabilities experience less time learning content in the grade-level standards, less instructional time, and less content coverage than their nondisabled peers (Kurz et al., 2014)
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From page 97... ...
Similarly, high-poverty schools are at least 1.5 times as likely as low-poverty schools to not offer advanced coursework in math and science and to not offer AP courses or dual enrollment programs. Proposed Measures for Indicator 11 Indicator 11 should be measured by differential rates of enrollment and participation in gifted and talented programs, the coursework needed for college preparation, AP and IB courses, and dual enrollment programs.
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From page 98... ...
TABLE 5-4 Number and Percentage of Schools with No Access to Core Science Courses, by Percentage of Racial/Ethnic Minority Students in Quintiles (Q) Table 5‐4 Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Low Minority High Minority 20th percentile 80th percentile or lower in or higher in percent of percent of minority minority All Subject students Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 students Schools % # % # % # % # % # % Biology or 14% 877 15% 798 20% 1,122 26% 1,513 29% 1,592 23% higher Chemistry 18% 1,163 23% 1,233 30% 1,662 39% 2,310 42% 2,312 33% or higher Physics 31% 1,990 37% 1,977 44% 2,443 53% 3,111 59% 3,265 47% SOURCE: ExcelinEd (2018, p.
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From page 99... ...
TABLE 5-6 Number and Percentage of Schools with No Access to Core Math Courses, by Percentage of Economically Disadvantaged Students in Table 5‐6 Quintiles (Q) Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Low Poverty High Poverty 20th percentile 80th percentile or or lower in higher in percent percent of low‐ of low‐income All Subject income students Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 students Schools % # % # % # % # % # % Algebra 1 16% 838 10% 651 12% 699 21% 1,025 21% 835 20% or higher Geometry 18% 940 12% 737 14% 811 25% 1,214 26% 1,031 23% or higher Algebra 2 21% 1,105 14% 897 18% 1,006 31% 1,523 32% 1,281 28% or higher Advanced Math or 29% 1,528 21% 1,348 29% 1,631 46% 2,274 50% 1,975 39% higher Calculus 39% 2,105 38% 2,373 49% 2,750 66% 3,253 72% 2,829 55% SOURCE: ExcelinEd (2018, p.
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From page 100... ...
TABLE 5-8 Number and Percentage of Schools with No Access to Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, or Dual Enrollment Courses, by Percentage of Economically Disadvantaged Students in Table 5‐8 (Q) Quintiles Quintile 1 Quintile 5 Low Poverty High Poverty 20th 80th percentile or percentile or lower in higher in percent of percent of low‐income low‐income All Program students Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 students Schools % # % # % # % # % # % Advanced 41% 2,172 42% 2,667 50% 2,822 62% 3,042 65% 2,574 55% Placement International 96% 5,137 97% 6,070 96% 5,400 97% 4,784 97% 3,847 97% Baccalaureate Dual 44% 2,335 34% 2,160 40% 2,266 58% 2,858 65% 2,562 52% Enrollment SOURCE: ExcelinEd (2018, p.
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From page 101... ...
. Decades of research have demonstrated that schools under the most pressure to improve test scores for purposes of accountability -- which are almost always schools serving high proportions of black, Hispanic, and low-income students -- often respond by narrowing the curriculum.
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From page 102... ...
School-based academic supports can include a variety of services, such as academic support classes, academic tutoring, early warning systems, and high school transition activities. Research suggests that academic support classes may have a positive effect on such student outcomes as average number of credits earned, high school graduation, and college enrollment.14 Data on disparities in the prevalence of these services are available through the U.S.
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From page 103... ...
Department of Justice.17 Similarly, isolating English learners can limit their opportunities to participate in rigorous and challenging instructional programs and is likely to reduce opportunities for interactions between these students and their English-proficient peers. Concerns about linguistic isolation have increased over time and also been the subject of lawsuits.18 Proposed Measures for Indicator 13 The committee's proposed indicator focuses on access to and participation in formalized systems of tutoring or other types of academic supports.
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From page 104... ...
There is some evidence that positive school climate is associated with improved outcomes for students, but moreover, schools with hostile climates can negatively affect at-risk students, having been linked to depression, low self-esteem, feelings of victimization, and lower academic achievement (Kosciw et al., 2012; O'Malley et al., 2014; Thapa et al., 2013)
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From page 105... ...
, and many school districts also administer climate surveys.19 The Chicago Consortium on School Research has developed robust measures and collected extensive longitudinal data on school climate. Research from Chicago public schools -- where nearly 80 percent of students are socioeconomically disadvantaged -- as well as the state of Illinois, has shown that students have higher academic achievement in schools in which staff and students report positive school climates than in schools in which staff and students report weak school climates, comparing schools serving students with similar backgrounds (Brookover et al., 1979; Bryk et al., 2010; Haynes, Emmons, and Ben-Avie, 1997; Klugman et al., 2015; Tschannen-Moran, P arish, and DiPaola, 2006)
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From page 106... ...
The U.S. Department of Education also created a center to help school systems develop safe and supportive learning environments20 and compiled climate survey items that are available for public use.21 The National Institute of Justice recently issued a report focused on creating and sustaining a positive and communal school climate,22 and the Office of Civil Rights issued a report summarizing its findings from data collections on climate and safety in public schools.23 Proposed Measures for Indicator 14 At present, measures of school climate are not ready to be included in a nationwide system of equity indicators.
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From page 107... ...
. Overall, black students tend to be subjected to harsher disciplinary consequences than white students, even for the same infractions in the same schools (Anderson and Ritter, 2017)
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From page 108... ...
Indicator 16: Disparities in Nonacademic Supports for Student Success There are many ways that schools can help support students at risk of school failure. We grouped these supports into four categories, as explained below: • Socioemotional development: examples include using specific cur ricular programs, embedding socioemotional learning practices into curriculum and instructing, and embedding socioemotional development into the school climate.
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From page 109... ...
. In addition, schools can promote socioemotional development through means other than adopting an explicit socioemotional skills curriculum, including through supportive school climates and the adoption of instructional practices that support the development of student agency, collaboration, and related skills (Allensworth et al., 2018; Jones and Kahn, 2017)
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From page 110... ...
Corresponding measures for multi-school districts, states, and the nation would be the percentage of students in each group of interest attending schools with student bodies that are predominantly low, middle, or high income, however defined (see Appendix C)
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From page 111... ...
Possible measures: Percent students attending low-income, middle income, high-income schools; percent students attending schools with high, medium, and low percentages of specified race/ethnicity groups Future potential: In the case of poverty, because states generally use NSLP eligibility as their indicator of low income, work is needed to develop an appropriate measure -- e.g., by having the Census Bureau model ACS poverty data for school attendance areas or student bodies (see Appendix C) NOTES: ACS, American Community Survey; NSLP, National School Lunch Program.
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From page 112... ...
Future potential: Substantial work would be required to develop standard rating systems for pre-K quality for programs offered by districts and other organizations, building on state experience with various rating systems; NIEER's surveys ask basic facts that could contribute to a quality measure, including hours pre-K offered, whether teachers have a B.A., teacher-student ratio, etc. NOTES: CRDC, Civil Rights Data Collection; NIEER, National Institute for Early Education Research.
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From page 113... ...
: CRDC Frequency: Biannual Geographic detail: Nation, states, districts, schools (elementary, middle, secondary school, other) Student group detail: Race/ethnicity, gender, English-language status, disability status Possible measures: Percent students attending schools with low, moderate, high percent teachers with 2+ years teaching Future potential: The CRCD only distinguishes teachers with 1, 2, or 3+ years teaching; could construct from SLDS as more states develop them in a comparable manner, include information on teacher experience, and provide access for statistical purposes continued
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From page 114... ...
Ethnic Diversity of the Teaching Future potential: Construct from SLDS as more states develop them Force in a comparable manner, include information on race/ethnicity of teachers, and provide access for statistical purposes; could possibly construct measures of percent students in schools with high, medium, or low percent teachers with the same race/ethnicity as majority of students in school and classroom Indicator 11: Disparities in Access to and Enrollment in Rigorous Coursework Availability Source: CRDC and Enrollment in Advanced, Frequency: Biannual Rigorous Coursework Geographic detail: Nation, states, districts, middle schools Student group detail: Race/ethnicity, gender, English-language status, disability status Possible measures: Percent students in grades 7-8 in middle schools that offer algebra I; percent students in grade 8 enrolled when offered (also has information on high school enrollment in various science and math courses) Future potential: Construct more complete measures from transcript information from SLDS as more states develop them in a comparable manner and provide access for statistical purposes
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From page 115... ...
Other Types of Academic Desirable possible measures: Percent students in schools (by level) that Supports have low, medium, high ratios of tutors, counselors, and other support staff per student; percent students using such resources Future potential: Further research and data collection are needed to develop useful measures for this construct NOTES: AP, Advanced Placement; CRDC, Civil Rights Data Collection; DE, dual enrollment (high school and college)
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From page 116... ...
: NCES 2012 EDSCS Pilot, School Safety and Environment Safety, Academic Modules Support, Academically Frequency: One-time; survey instruments are provided to states, school Focused Culture, districts, and schools for their use and TeacherStudent Trust Geographic detail: Nation (sample too small for finer detail) Student group detail: Race/ethnicity, gender, whether in special education Grade/level detail: Tested questions are available for school climate, including safety and environment (physical, instructional)
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From page 117... ...
Frequency: Biannual Geographic detail: Nation, states, districts, schools Student group detail: Race/ethnicity, gender, English-language status, disability status Possible measures: Percent students in schools with more than adequate staff resources for their student bodies, adequate resources, or less than adequate resources Comment: This is only one way of potentially measuring adequacy of school resources to support the needs of students in terms of emotional and behavioral development and physical and mental health NOTES: CRDC, Civil Rights Data Collection; EDSCS, ED School Climate Surveys; FTE, fulltime equivalent; NCES, National Center for Education Statistics.
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