Federal Policy to Advance Racial, Ethnic, and Tribal Health Equity (2023) / Chapter Skim
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4 Education Access and Quality
4 Education Access and Quality
Pages 179-222
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From page 179... ...
, Section 504 of the Americans with Disabilities Act, and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act. The history of racism and social and educational segregation have affected the quality of education afforded to children who have been racially and ethnically minoritized.
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Supreme Court decisions, and federal, state, and local legislation and policies indicates: (1) a recogni tion that population groups -- such as racial and ethnic minorities, children living in low-income families, children who are not proficient in English, and children with disabilities -- have experienced significant barriers to educational attainment; and (2)
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. The 1964 Civil Rights Act provided an even more expansive framework for prohibiting discrimination and was followed 2 years later by the Equality of Educational Opportunity Study (the Coleman Report)
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. Educational attainment impacts communities across generations as well -- parental attainment is linked to child health and well-being (Evans et al., 2021)
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Box 4-1 discusses key aspects of the department's civil rights functions addressing discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity and disability status. Addressing racial and ethnic education inequities will have economic effects as well (and that also shapes health status)
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These laws include Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimina tion based on race, color, or national origin; Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which prohibits discrimination based on sex, including sexual orientation and gender identity; and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability. The regulations for these laws require recipi ents of DOE's federal financial assistance to submit to OCR "complete and accurate compliance reports at such times, and in such form and containing such information" as OCR "may determine to be necessary to enable [OCR]
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Education and Health Inequity Much of the association between education, health, and economic outcomes is mediated through the total years of education completed; most racial and ethnic groups have seen steady progress. Figure 4-1 shows high school graduation rates, as measured by the DOE adjusted cohort graduation rate, which is the percentage of first-time ninth-graders in public high schools who graduate with a regular diploma within 4 years,
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States have the option of reporting data for either a combined "Asian/Pacific Islander" group or the "Asian" and "Pacific Islander" groups separately. This table aggregates the "Asian/Pacific Islander" data and the separate "Asian" and "Pacific Islander" data to compute the "Asian/Pacific Islander" adjusted cohort graduation rate.
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Figure 4-2 shows median earnings among 25–34-year-old adults FIGURE 4-2 Median earnings of young adults by education, race, and ethnicity. NOTE: Data source includes other racial and ethnic groups not separately shown, including Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander and American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN)
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Nonetheless, strong evidence shows that some policy changes and investments will improve outcomes and narrow differences in educational attainment and quality across racial and ethnic groups. Although the best mix of changes to policy and practice to improve outcomes will vary by state, district, school, or student group, research can guide policy makers on which choices are likely to have a strong return on investment.
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Office of Civil Rights first started to sample school districts in 1968. Disparities in identification are greatest for more subjective disabilities, such as specific learning disabilities (SLD)
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Other studies, though, have indicated that even when effects on test scores fade, interventions, especially in early childhood, can affect outcomes over the long term, perhaps due to how Head Start influences social, behavioral, and emotional skills (Chetty et al., 2011; Heckman, 2006)
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. Furthermore, unlike Head Start, the program permits states to serve as grantees, allowing for states to braid any Early Head Start funding with their block grant funding to take a statewide
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. School Spending Increases in per-pupil school spending have been shown to improve a range of student outcomes in the short run, including test scores, graduation rates, and earnings.
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. Although the modern school finance literature has not tested the impact of school spending on health outcomes directly, it has shown that school spending improves educational attainment.
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One approach to improvement in low-spending states could be to increase funding for Title I, a federal block grant program that earmarks extra funding to school districts serving low-income children. As Black and Hispanic students and students from other racial and ethnic groups that are minoritized are more likely than White students to be low income, providing more resources through this program could also reduce racial and ethnic differences in spending.
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One important factor is high-quality school personnel. Research shows that standardized test scores also improve when teachers can successfully improve a range of other student outcomes, such as teen pregnancy, college attendance, and their eventual earnings (Chetty et al., 2014a,b)
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. For example, ESSA requires that "states establish student performance goals, hold schools accountable for student achievement, and include a broader measure of student performance in their accountability systems beyond test scores" (ASCD, 2016)
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Thus, evidence-based policy, accountability, and community engagement play a critical role in improving federal policy for education as it relates to equity. Conclusion 4-3: Increases in per-pupil school spending have been shown to improve a range of student outcomes in the short and long run, including test scores, educational attainment, and earnings -- all of which in turn are correlated with better health outcomes.
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In 2020, the Brookings Institution, Child Trends, and community school leaders launched a task force on Next Generation Community Schools (Harper et al., 2020) , which outlined seven ways community schools can close inequities and transform education and provided an overview of the impact of community schools on educational outcomes (Task Force on Next Generation Community Schools, 2021)
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Board of Education shaped school integration and provided a foundation for education equity in K–12 education; along with several statutes (e.g., Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, and Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990) , it has also served as a foundation for affirmative action in higher education (Cornell Law School, n.d.)
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. Estimated rates among AIAN people fell from 19 to 11 percent, in contrast with their increase in high school graduation rates over nearly the same period.
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Notably, the federal–state balance of funding for higher education has shifted since the 2008 recession, with state funding declining and federal funding increasing, especially through Pell Grants and Veterans' Education Benefits (Pew Research Center, 2019)
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. With more than $28 billion aid in the 2017–2018 award year, Pell Grants are the second-largest source of need-based aid for postsecondary education, after federal student loans (College Board, 2022)
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Financial aid can help incarcerated students gain access to postsecondary education; however, both colleges and students need to understand the complexities of administering Pell Grants in the corrections environment. Student Loans and Repayment Student loans have received considerable attention, and high repayment burdens cause financial struggles for some borrowers.
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The first MSIs were the 108 Historically Black colleges and universities founded before the 1964 Civil Rights Act (DOI, n.d.)
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. For example, measures of graduation rates do not consider complex student pathways (e.g., moving to another MSI, part-time study)
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SCHOOL OPPORTUNITIES TO DIRECTLY PROMOTE HEALTH, INSURANCE COVERAGE, AND ACCESS TO CARE Schools have unique opportunities to advance health. For example, they can assist in outreach and enrollment of eligible children in Medicaid and the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP)
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. SBHCs are funded by a range of public and private sources, from local and state funding to federal block grants (e.g., Maternal and Child Health Block Grant)
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School Meals Programs The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) , established in 1946, is a federally assisted program administered by the Department of Agriculture (USDA)
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Schwartz and Rothbart (2020) found that providing free meals to all students in New York City middle schools substantially increased participation in school lunch and improved math and reading performance for both low- and higher-income students.
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. However, many National Academies reports list evidence-based and promising recommendations for federal action specific to education access and quality to advance health equity and the factors that affect it (including and beyond the federal policies reviewed in this chapter)
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. Vibrant and Healthy Kids: Aligning Science, Practice, and Policy to Advance Health Equity (NASEM, 2019d)
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When Schools Are Closed, Many Fewer Eligible Children Receive Meals. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up front/2020/09/21/why-extend-pandemic-ebt-when-schools-are-closed-many-fewer eligible-children-receive-meals/ (accessed February 21, 2023)
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Washington, DC: Urban Institute. Civil Rights Litigation Clearinghouse.
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Number of Recipients, Total Awards and Aid per Recipient for Federal Aid Programs in Current Dollars and in 2021 dollars, 1976–77 to 2021–22. https://research.collegeboard.org/media/xlsx/trends-student-aid-excel-data-2021-0.xlsx (accessed June 15, 2023)
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2012. Indian boarding school experience, substance use, and mental health among urban two-spirit American Indian/Alaska Natives.
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2019. Federal student aid: Actions needed to evalu ate Pell grant pilot for incarcerated students.
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"Free Care" Rule. https://healthystudentspromisingfutures.org/ free-care-rule/ (accessed June 2, 2023)
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2016. School-based health centers to advance health equity.
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Percentage of Persons 25 to 29 Years Old with Selected Levels of Educational Attainment, by Race/Ethnicity and Sex: Selected Years, 1920 Through 2020. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d20/tables/dt20_104.20.asp (accessed March 21, 2023)
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asp (accessed June 2, 2023)
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2022. Universal access to free school meals and student achievement: Evidence from the community eligibility provision.
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2022. States can reduce Medicaid's adminis trative burdens to advance health and racial equity.
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