Ground Water Recharge Using Waters of Impaired Quality (1994) / Chapter Skim
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2 Source Waters and Their Treatment
2 Source Waters and Their Treatment
Pages 35-96
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From page 35... ...
This chapter evaluates the quality of municipal wastewater and the quality improvement gained from pnmary, secondary, and advanced wastewater treatment. The quality of urban stormwater runoff and its possible treatment methods are also discussed, as is the quality of irrigation return flow and the problems inherent in treating it.
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From page 36... ...
Raw municipal wastewater may include contributions from domestic and industrial sources, infiltration and inflow from the collection system, and, in the case of combined sewer systems, urban stormwater runoff. The typical composition of untreated municipal wastewater appears in Table 2.1.
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From page 37... ...
supply plus mineral pickup resulting from domestic water use, which in the United States vanes from 200 to 400 mg/1. Wastewater treatment levels are generally classified as preliminary, primary, secondary, and advanced.
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From page 38... ...
38 GROUND WATER RECHARGE TABLE 2.2 Infectious Agents Potentially Present in Untreated Municipal Wastewater Disease Protozoa Er~tame e ba h is to lytica Giardia lamblia Balantidium cold Cryptosporidium Helminths Ascar~s lumbricoides (roundworm) Ancylostoma duedenale (hookworm)
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From page 39... ...
Additional phosphorus and heavy metal removal can be achieved through the addition of chemical coagulants and polymers. Primary treatment, together with preliminary treatment, typically removes 50 to 60 percent of the suspended solids and 30 to 40 percent of the organic matter.
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From page 40... ...
Typical microorganism removal efficiencies for activated sludge and trickling filter secondary treatment processes are given in Table 2.4. Concentration ranges for inorganic constituents and some other parameters in secondary-treated municipal wastewater are presented in Table 2.5.
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From page 41... ...
heavy metals and specific organic compounds (Water Pollution Control Federation, 1989~. Trickling filters are not as effective as activated sludge processes in removing soluble organics because of less contact between the organic matter and microorganisms.
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From page 42... ...
pH (Unix) Exact condo ToW dissolved saw arsenic Bomn Cadmium Cb~mium Copper Lead Molybdenum Beaux Nichol Zinc Biocbemica1 oxygen demand Chemical oxygen demand Toml suspen~d solids Tote o~1c coon 9-84 9-108 12-176 ~1320 -501 43-2450 0.2-3.8 7~63 0.~30 1.~6 14 490 1~6 62~S 1 6.3-8.4 423-6370 ~mbo~m 21~580 < 0.005~.023 0.3-2.5 < 0.005~.22 <0.001-0.1 0.00~.053 0.003~.35 0.001~.018 < 0.002~.010 0.003~.60 0.~.35 1.5-30 40-70 10-25 15-25 ~Concenuation expressed in milligrams per liter unless olberwise noted.
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From page 43... ...
The major advanced wastewater processes associated with ground water recharge are coagulation- sedimentation , filtration, vitrification , denitrificati on, phoshorus removal, carbon adsorption, and reverse osmosis. Coagulation-Sed imentation Chemical coagulation with lime, alum, or ferric chloride followed by sedimentation removes suspended solids, heavy metals, trace substances, phosphorus, and turbidity.
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From page 44... ...
; and RAS - return activated sludge. bRemoval process occurs in the main flowstream as opposed to sidestream treatment.
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From page 45... ...
All three of the treatment plants have conventional activated sludge treatment followed by filtration and disinfection. Treatment of biologically treated secondary effluent by chemical coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration has been demonstrated to remove more than 99 percent of seeded poliovirus (Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, 1977~.
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From page 47... ...
SOURCE WATERS AND THEIR TREATMENT TABLE 2.8 Organic Constituent Concentrations in Oxidized, Filtered, Disinfected Reclaimed Water at Three Water Reclamation Plants 47 Range of Concentration (,ug/l) Constituent Whittier Narrows San Jose Creek Pomona Methylene chloride 3.3-5.3 2.1-3.6 ND-3.9 Chloroform 3.5-6.9 3.~-7.4 3.~-5.8 Bromodichloromethane ND-0.8 ND- 1.3 ND-2.0 Dibromochloromethane ND ND-0.6 ND-1.2 Bromoform ND ND ND Carbon tetrachloride ~ ND ND N-0.4 1,1-Dichloroethane ND ND ND 1,2-Dichloroethane ND ND ND 1, 1,1-Dichloroethane 0.5-2.3 ND-l.1 ND 1,1,2-Dichloroethane ND ND ND 1,1-Dichloroethylene ND ND ND Trichloroethylene ND ND ND Tetrachloroethylene ND-0.6 ND-33.6 ND- 1.1 Benzene ND ND ND Toluene ND-0.4 ND- 1.2 ND Chlorobenzene ND ND ND O-Dichlorobenzene ND ND-0.6 ND M-Dichlorobenzene ND ND ND P-Dichlorobenzene 0.9-2.2 0.9-1.5 ND-1.1 Trans-1,2-dichloroethylene ND ND ND Bromomethane ND ND ND Chloroethane ND ND ND 2-Chloroethylvinylether ND ND ND Chloromethane ND ND ND 1,2-Dichloropropane ND ND ND Cis-1,3-dichloropropene ND ND ND Trans- 1,3-dichloropropene ND ND ND 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloropropene ND ND ND Vinyl chloride ND ND ND Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
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From page 48... ...
Source: Bookman-Edmonston Engineering, Inc., 1992. TABLE 2.9 Physical Properties and Inorganic Constituent Concentrations in Oxidized, Filtered, Disinfected Reclaimed Water at Three Water Reclamation Plants Range of Concentration (mg/1 unless otherwise noted)
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From page 49... ...
Several types of filtration systems are used at municipal wastewater treatment plants including conventional dual- or multi-media filters, mono-medium deep bed filters, automatic-backwashing shallow-bed travailing bridge filters, downflow contiuously backwashing filters, and upflow continuously backwashing filters. They are usually designed and operated to achieve low suspended
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From page 50... ...
In the traditional activated sludge process, it is accomplished by designing the process to provide a retention time for suspended solids that is long enough to prevent the slow-growing Vitrifying bacteria from being washed out of the system. Nitrification also occurs in trickling filters that operate at low BOD/ TKN (total kjeldahl nitrogen)
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From page 51... ...
Chemical phosphorus removal can attain effluent or~ophosphate concentrations of less than 0.1 mg/1, while biological phosphorus removal will usually produce an effluent phosphorus concentration between 1.0 and 2.0 mg/1. Carbon Adsorption One of the most effective advanced wastewater treatment processes for removing biodegradable and refractory organic constituents is the use of granular activated carbon (GAC)
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From page 52... ...
have been shown to be effective in removing microorganisms, including viruses, from municipal wastewater, but again are not commonly used. The strategy in the selection and use of disinfectants for source waters prior to recharge should recognize the possibility that the nature and quantities of the disinfection by-products (DBPs)
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From page 53... ...
mgQ 23 2.6 Organic nitrogen mg/1 < 0.1 < 0.1 Total kjeldahl nitrogen mgQ 23 2.6 Total alkalinity mgQ 20 13 Total hardness mg/1 262 5 Fluoride mg/1 0.5 0.16 Chloride mgQ 373 40 Nitrate (as N) mgQ 0.4 0.1 Sulfate - mg/1 431 4.8 Boron mgQ 0.6 0.5 Silica mg/1 14 < 1.0 Chemical oxygen demand mgQ 27 1 Total organic carbon mgIl 10.3 0.8 MBASa mgQ 0.24 0.06 Color color units 13 < 3 Free chlorine mgQ < 0.1 < 0.1 Total chlorine mgQ < 0.3 < 0.3 Total colifoll ~CFIJ/100 ml < 0.3 < 0.3 Fecal coliform CFU1100 ml < 1 < 1 aMBAS = methylene blue active substances, a measure of surfactant concentration.
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From page 54... ...
aTreaunent before GAC includes biological secondary treatment, chemcial (lime) clarification, air sopping, chlonnaiion, and filtration.
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From page 55... ...
It also breaks down recalcitrant organic compounds into more biodegradable compounds, which is advantageous for ground water recharge and soil-aquifer treatment. Ultraviolet Radiation Irradiation of wastewater with ultraviolet radiation for disinfection is potenhally a desirable alternative to chemical disinfection, owing to its inactivating power for bacteria and viruses, affordable cost, and the absence of chemical disinfection by-products.
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From page 56... ...
in a full scale pilot plant to a blend of 70 percent secondary municipal wastewater effluent and 30 percent surface water with 90 to 99 percent reductions in total coliform organisms, E colt, fecal streptococci, Salmonella, and coliphages (sizer et al., 1993~.
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From page 57... ...
These species can participate in virtually every major class of reaction with organic molecules, and in the natural water environment complex natural product organic molecules (dissolved organic matter, DOM) are commonly available, largely in the form of humic substances, which may account for as much as 40 to 50 percent of the dissolved organic carbon in terrestrial streams.
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From page 58... ...
On the other hand, chlorine and other disinfectants have played an extremely important role in controlling waterborne infectious disease, and the hazards that could arise from the abolition of disinfection would far outweigh any benefits from reduced toxicological hazards (Bull and Kopfler, 1991~. Monochloramine Disinfection It is generally believed that monochloramine is inherently less reactive with native organic carbon in water systems than is chlorine with similar DBP fo~mation at lower concentration levels (Jensen et al., 1985~.
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From page 59... ...
High pH values and ultraviolet radiation promote ozone decomposition favoring the hydroxyl radical pathway, whereas low pH values and the presence of radical scavengers such as carbonate and bicarbonate ions promote He molecular ozone pathway. In water treatment practice, ozone is often used in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide (peroxone process)
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From page 60... ...
URBAN STORMWATER RUNOFI? Characteristics Urban stormwater runoff can be a candidate for ground water recharge because of its close proximity to points of use and water supply infrastructure and because substantial water volumes are associated with urban runoff.
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From page 61... ...
can all have important effects on urban stormwater runoff quality. Bacterial Characteristics Most descriptions of bacterial characteristics of urban runoff focus on fecal coliform analysis because of its historical use in water quality standards.
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From page 62... ...
62 o Ct ~9 ._ 3 so: o ._ Ad U
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From page 63... ...
The observed ranges of concentrations and percentage isolations of these biotypes vary significantly from site to site and at the same location for different times. However, many potentially pathogenic bacterial types can be present in urban stormwater runoff.
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From page 64... ...
64 s~ C~ U: ._ ~: o s~ 3 s~ o C~ ._ ~: o C~ ._ o o C~ ._ C~ ,J m as ~ ax ~, as :,, ax .° a ~2t a ~ ~^ s ~ ~ - t- S_ - C.)
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From page 65... ...
Many of the heavy metals found in industrial urban runoff were high during both dry weather and wet weather conditions. Contamination by Industrial Wastewater The potential for toxicants and hazardous materials in industrial areas to contaminate urban stormwater runoff is a serious problem.
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From page 66... ...
66 GROUND WATER RECHARGE TABLE 2.14 Summary of National Urban Runoff Program Priority Pollutant Analyses Frequency of Detection (%) Range of Detected Concentrations (legal)
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From page 67... ...
SOURCE WATERS kD THEIR TREATMENT TABLE 2.15 Hazardous and Toxic Substances Found in Urban Runoff 67 Residential Areas Industrial Areas Halogenated Aliphatics 1 '2,-Dichloroethene Methylene chloride Tetrachloroethylene Phthalate x x x Bis(2-ethylene) phthalate x Butylbenzyl phthalate x x Diethyl phthalate ~ x Di-~-butyl phthalate x x Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Phenanthrene x Pyrene x Other Volatiles Benzene x x Chloroform x Ethylbenzene x N-Nitro-sodimethylamine x Toluene x Heavy Metals Aluminum x x Chromium x Copper x x Lead x x Zinc x x Pesticides and Phenols BHC x Chlordane x Dieldrin x Endosulfan sulfate x Endrin x Isophorone x Methoxychlor ~ x PCB-arochlor 1254 x · PCB-arochlor 1260 x Pentachlorophenol x x Phenol x x Note: Substances were found in at least 10 percent of the stormwater samples analyzed.
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From page 68... ...
Industrial stormwater should therefore not be considered an appropriate source water for ground water recharge. Relative Contributions of Different Flow Periods Tables 2.16 and 2.17 summarize residential/commercial and industrial urban runoff characteristics during both warm and cold weather in Toronto (Pitt and McLean, 1986~.
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From page 69... ...
< 54322117 Chlondes281783417 Total phosphorus0.090.730.280.75 Phosphates< 0.060.120.020.16 Total Kjeldahl nitrogen0.92.42.52.0 (organic nitrogen plus ammonia) Ammonia nitrogen Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
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From page 70... ...
However, there is adequate information to identify which upland areas are preferable for use as sources for ground water recharge and which ones to avoid because of excessive contamination. The major urban source area categories that have been studied include the following: · roofs, · paved parking areas,
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From page 72... ...
72 ao o ~: C~ ._ C} _~ ._ o C)
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From page 73... ...
Similarly, most of the fecal coliform populations observed in sheet flows were also significantly lower than those observed at the outfall. Treatment Methods Stormwater runoff has been treated for reuse successfully in several U.S.
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From page 74... ...
74 ._ as a o CO ~D 3 cn CD e~ .
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From page 75... ...
75 o> ~ ::: o' =- ::: 8 iz ooo .
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From page 76... ...
The Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP) included full-scale monitoring of nine wet detention ponds (U.S.
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From page 77... ...
Cleaning catch basins twice a year was found to allow the catch basins to partially capture particulates for most rains. This cleaning schedule reduces the total solids and lead urban runoff yields by between 10 and 25 percent, and COD, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, and zinc by between 5 and 10 percent (Pitt and Shawley, 1981; Pitt, 1984~.
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From page 78... ...
Moreover, there is a paucity of data on the quality of imgation return flow, except for data on dissolved solids and nitrate concentrations. Recent studies have addressed the content of selected pesticide residues and trace
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From page 80... ...
Closed drainage basins, especially terminal ponds, wetlands, and playas, had the highest concentrations of dissolved solids and specific constituents of concem. The great variation in imgation return flow quality can be seen by inspecting results reported from several widely scattered sites in the western United States.
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From page 81... ...
of 2 to 10 times, suspended solids of 1.5 to 5 times, nitrate-nitrogen of 1.3 to 20 times, and boron of almost 40 times over the concentrations in the supply water. The constituent concentrations in the irrigation return flow were as high 2,050 mg/1 for TDS, 348 mg/1 for suspended solids; nitrate-N: 12.6 mg/1 for nitrate-nitrogen; and 4.3 mg/1 for boron.
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From page 82... ...
atrazine residues in tile drainwater from Ontario cornfields. Leaching of nitrate and, to a lesser extent, pesticides to ground water beneath litigated fields has been observed in many states (Law, 1987; Sabol et al.,
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From page 83... ...
mg/1 196213 Sulfate - mall 4,7306,500 Chloride - mg/1 1,4802,000 Nitrate/nitrite (as N) mg/1 4860 Silica mg/1 3748 Total dissolved solids mg/1 9,82011,600 Suspended solids mg/1 1120 Total organic carbon mg/1 10,216 Chemical oxygen demand mall 3280 Biochemical oxygen demand mg/1 3.25.8 Temperaturea °C 1929 pH 8.28.7 Boron ,ug/1 14,40018,000 Selenium ,ug/1 325420 Strontium ~g/1 6,4007,200 Iron ,ug/1 110210 Aluminum ,ug/1 < 1< 1 Arsenic ,ugQ Cadmium ~g/1 < 120 Chromium (total)
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From page 84... ...
Irrigation return flow collected by tile drains, therefore, should be expected to contain elevated nitrate concentrations and perhaps some level of pesticide contamination, depending on the type of pesticide applied. Irrigation return flow can also contain wide ranging concentrations of sus pended sediment, as shown by Boucher (1984)
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From page 85... ...
Collectively, these quality characteristics generally indicate the need for extensive treatment of irrigation return flowbefore it might be used for recharge without causing quality problems in the receiving ground water. Treatment Methods Water quality parameters of greatest concern in irrigation return flow include suspended solids, TDS, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, pesticide residues, and various trace metals.
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From page 86... ...
SUMMARY Wastewaters considered suitable source waters for ground water recharge include municipal wastewater effluent, stormwater runoff, and irrigation return flow. Table 2.22 is a summary of advantages and disadvantages pertaining to the use of wastewaters for recharge, Table 2.23 is a summary of the qualities of the Free primary types of wastewater considered in this report.
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From page 87... ...
Pesticide residues may also pose problems in irrigation return flow, but in general most of the pesticide residues are associated with particulates and are readily removed with suspended solids. Treatment of irrigation return flow is not generally done, but treatment processes are available to remove the constituents of concern to acceptable levels.
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From page 88... ...
88 of Us: C)
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From page 89... ...
89 _ ice ~ ~ _ _ of 0 _ _ _ 3 con tO s - Z u 2 ~ ° ° s ~ ~ A _ ~ ~e ~ w - °, e :, · ° c o 2 -a_ 2-o s o - ° ' o-cs a a _ ~ _ ~ ~c.
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From page 91... ...
While urban stormwater runoff and municipal wastewater are usually located near the area of use, most imgation return flows would be located furler from populated areas. REFERENCES American Society of Civil Engineers.
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From page 92... ...
1990. Investigations of water quality, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in the western United States.
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From page 93... ...
1981. Grand Valley iliigation return flow case study.
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From page 94... ...
1979. Microbiological studies on the quality of urban stormwater runoff in southern Ontano, Canada.
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From page 95... ...
1983. Results of the Nationwide Urban Runoff Program.
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From page 96... ...
Poster presentation at the American Water Works Association 1992 Water Quality Technology Conference, Nov.
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