Simulated Voyages Using Simulation Technology to Train and License Mariners (1996) / Chapter Skim
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2 Use of Simulation in Training and Licensing: Current State of Practice
2 Use of Simulation in Training and Licensing: Current State of Practice
Pages 37-66
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From page 37... ...
It is assumed that skills and knowledge learned in a classroom can be applied effectively to relevant situations outside the classroom. No training environment will be exactly the same as the operating situation.
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From page 38... ...
. Within the marine industry, the International Marine Simulator Forum, an organization of simulator facility operators and other interested parties, and the International Maritime Lecturers Association, an international professional organization of marine educators and trainers, have been working to develop technical standards for simulators that would complement and support the STCW guidelines.
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From page 39... ...
Computer-Based and Physical Scale-Model Simulators A wide range of simulator capabilities are in use for training worldwide. Marine simulator capabilities for channel design and mariner training developed along two parallel and complementary lines -- computer-based simulators and
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From page 40... ...
The use of manned models was initiated in France in 1966. Manned models in the form of scale models of ships are used primarily for shiphandling training.
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From page 41... ...
Computers also made it practical to combine actual radar equipment with mathematical models of vessel behavior to create radar simulators for use as an element of fullmission or multi-task training, or as a limited-task, stand-alone training device. Full-mission, multi-task, and limited-task simulators are, as a rule, operated in real time and can appear to be quite realistic.
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From page 42... ...
Full-mission and multi-task ship-bridge simulators place the trainee inside a bridge mockup with actual bridge equipment or fully functional and configured 2The difficulties of properly modeling ship response are discussed in Appendix D, which deals with the complexities of hydrodynamic interactions, the nonlinear nature of ship motions, and their practical impact on trajectory responses in simulations.
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From page 43... ...
In varying degrees, simulators take advantage of training, transfer, and retention benefits suggested by human performance literature for training systems approximating real operating conditions. From a technical perspective, in a highfidelity, full-mission ship-bridge simulator, the training environment is expected to approach equivalency with the actual operating environment being simulated.
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From page 44... ...
For navigation and piloting training, where shallow or restricted water effects are often an element of the training objectives, it may be necessary to assess the capabilities of the equations of motion used to drive the radar simulator to determine whether radar simulation is suitable. Because shallow water and bank effects were generally not considered important to training objectives, and because the computational capabilities for using sophisticated equations of motion were expensive, most earlier radar simulators featured lower-fidelity, less-sophisticated equations of motion than shipbridge simulators.
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From page 45... ...
Thus, although bridge team management training could be conducted on blind-pilot simulators, the full range of cues that prompt decision making and action are not present for all operating conditions. The training that occurs is often less complete and representative of human performance than is possible in a ship-bridge simulator.
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From page 46... ...
The training environment produced is highly simplified and typically requires artificial interactions between student and simulator, such as controlling all operations through keyboard commands and data entries. The participant must conceptualize the ship bridge or bridge equipment more than in a full-mission or multi-task simulator.
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From page 47... ...
Figures 2-4 and 2-5 illustrate elements of a sample PC-based simulator program. The cue domain of the desktop training environment is not only greatly simplified from actual operating conditions, but also differs significantly in manner, form, and correctness of the presentation.
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From page 48... ...
The models place the trainee inside a real operating environment, albeit at modified physical and time scales. Nevertheless, the behavior of the manned models, at their scale, creates training conditions that closely approximate operating conditions and vessel behavior at full scale.
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From page 49... ...
Despite these concerns, there is wide support, particularly among pilots, for use of manned-model simulators. Virtual Reality Training Systems The latest development in simulator-based training is the emergence of virtual environment technology.
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From page 50... ...
Such systems, although currently somewhat limited in capabilities, are progressing toward more complete simulations of visual environments and toward development of better simulations of sound and feel. If successful in achieving realistic training environments, some virtual environment technologies have the potential to reduce simulator costs.
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From page 51... ...
The results of research from other sectors might be adapted in the future. USE OF MARINE SIMULATORS FOR TRAINING The existing training methodology in the marine industry has evolved based on old technologies, developed as ships have developed -- slowly, over a long period of time, in a conservative industry.
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From page 52... ...
Within the commercial air carrier industry, the widespread use of simulators in training has reduced training accidents. Simulators allow students to repeat a risky operation several times if needed.
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From page 53... ...
For some new equipment it is possible to place desktop simulators on board ships to provide an opportunity for independent training. Peer Interactions.
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From page 54... ...
The commercial air carrier industry is able to conduct transition training to a new aircraft entirely in simulators and at substantial savings over costs of the same training conducted entirely in an actual aircraft. In the marine industry, any calculation of savings comparing cost of using commercial ships solely as training platforms with those of simulators are almost entirely speculative.
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From page 55... ...
Microcomputer desktop simulators present a very artificial training environment compared to the latest generation of ship-bridge simulators. The manner of stimulating human performance is substantially different.
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From page 56... ...
SIMULATION IN MARINE LICENSING Refinements to improve the marine certification process with respect to STCW guidelines are under way, as are several USCG-initiated measures to improve U.S. marine licensing.
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From page 57... ...
The focus group observed that "although sea service experience and static testing techniques have formed the traditional basis for the seaman's training, licensing, and the certification process, this arrangement alone no longer provides the best methodology for ensuring professional proficiency." They concluded that "given the pace and sophistication of technological change within the industry and complexity of the affected trades, a mixture of comprehensive training and sea service experience offers the best opportunity to achieve higher standards of the professionalism and casualty reduction goals." The report recommends that the USCG adopt fundamental, higher-order principles to guide the agency's marine licensing program, including a stronger, more focused role in establishing competency standards and determining competency. The report also recognizes that use of simulators to test more than definitive subject knowledge -- for example, as a "road test" of individual abilities -- has not been fully demonstrated.
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From page 58... ...
The USCG has promulgated regulations requiring radar observer certification to meet STCW guidelines. This certification uses radar training courses involving examinations of knowledge and practical simulator demonstrations.
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From page 59... ...
As a part of its program oversight, the agency should require the simulator facility operator to document all changes made to the primary program elements, including the training course curriculum and the simulator scenarios. The agency should collect and analyze this and other data concerning factors such as transfer effectiveness and long-term performance of candidates who successfully complete the course.
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From page 60... ...
• Manned-model simulator shiphandling training courses cost approximate ly twice that amount, or $1,000 to $1,400 per day per student. • Many simulator facilities provide housing and meal facilities, which are available at a moderate cost to students.
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From page 61... ...
Despite these differences, it is possible to identify concepts and frameworks within the commercial air carrier system that could be adapted and applied to the marine industry. Airplane Simulators for Certification and Training As simulators have increased in ability to behave like aircraft, the commercial air carrier industry and the FAA have increased the permissible amount of training and checking accomplished in a simulator.
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From page 62... ...
issued Safety Recommendation A-88-71, directing a review of all initial and recurrent flight crew training programs to ensure that they included simulator or cockpit exercises involving cockpit resource management.4 The original motivation for the recommendation was the result of a study that found that at least 60 percent of commercial air carrier accidents could be attributed to some form of preventable crew error (Longridge, n.d.)
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From page 63... ...
Each instructor and checker is given a minimum of four hours training to establish familiarity with the simulator facility operator's advanced simulator-based training program. Instructions include training policies, instruction methods, simulator controls operation, simulator limitations, and minimum equipment required for each training course.
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From page 64... ...
The NSEP specifies exact maneuvers and tests to be performed and acceptable tolerance limits for each test. Differences Between Air Carrier and Marine Simulators The use of simulators in the commercial air carrier industry reflects, in part, different operating environments, practices, and "fleet" composition.
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From page 65... ...
In training on simulators, the concept of bridge team and bridge resource management in the marine industry is similar to that of cockpit resource management. Also, the concept of using all levels of simulators, special task through full mission (as practiced in commercial air carrier training)
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From page 66... ...
Air Carriers, 1978 through 1990. Safety Study NTSB/SS-94-01.
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