Measures of Environmental Performance and Ecosystem Condition (1999) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
Use of Materials Balances to Estimate Aggregate Waste Generation in the United States
Use of Materials Balances to Estimate Aggregate Waste Generation in the United States
Pages 96-156
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 96... ...
It is important to explain what we mean by macrolevel in this context. In general, large-scale mass flows exceed by many orders of magnitude the flows of the most highly toxic pollutants, including trace elements.
|
From page 97... ...
In cases where actual data are lacking, we assume 25 percent water content for processed "dry" commodities. Unfortunately, official statistics are not informative on this point.
|
From page 98... ...
AYRES AND LESLIE W AYRES TABLE 1 Agricultural Production in the United States, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 99... ...
. Harvested output of all field crops, including hay, in 1988 was 421.75 million metric tons (MMT)
|
From page 100... ...
agriculture, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 101... ...
Fertilizers and pesticides, direct chemical inputs to agriculture, are not counted explicitly as pollutants, although their use results in pollution. Animal wastes are a major pollution problem, especially in the vicinity of animal feedlots and large-scale poultry producers.
|
From page 102... ...
for 1988 was 186 MMT, plus about 20 MMT for grain-based beverages, alcohol, cotton, wool, and other products. Indirect consumption (as animal feed)
|
From page 103... ...
in U.S. agriculture, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 104... ...
, oilseed meal, brewers and distillers dried grains, meat and fish meal, dried milk, dried beet pulp, and molasses accounted for an additional 33.4 MMT of animal feeds (United States Department of Agriculture, 1992, table 3) .4 Assuming animal intake of pasturage (mainly by cattle)
|
From page 105... ...
We estimate inputs to the food processing sector (361 MMT) as the gross agricultural production of harvested crops (489 MMT)
|
From page 106... ...
The sugar beet process produces large quantities of pulpy material; about 1 MMT (dry) of this was used for animal feed in 1988 (United States Department of Agriculture, 1992, table 73)
|
From page 107... ...
,8 dog and cat food, glue, bone meal, blood meal, meat meal, and tankage. The last two items are utilized in animal feed concentrates (2.3 MMT in 1988; United States Department of Agriculture, 1992, table 73)
|
From page 108... ...
In this connection, a survey by Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC)
|
From page 109... ...
Assuming the timber had an original moisture content of 48 percent, total water input must have been 545 MMT. Subtracting the water content of the air-dried wood output (51 MMT)
|
From page 110... ...
In 1988, the primary bleaching agents were elemental chlorine (Cl2) , caustic soda, and chlorine dioxide.
|
From page 111... ...
In 1988, the U.S. pulp and paper industry consumed 2.3 MMT of caustic soda, or 24 percent of production (United States Bureau of Mines, 1989, p.
|
From page 112... ...
, whereas industrial wood and pulp average 1 percent ash content. Altogether, in addition to wastes already mentioned, we must add 1.8 MMT wood ash.
|
From page 113... ...
timber, pulp, and paper industries, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 114... ...
The latter process is carried out near the blast furnace because it utilizes significant quantities of iron-rich reverts, such as mill scale and dust, from later stages in the iron and steel production process. Blast furnace feed, or concentrates, average 63 percent iron, whereas domestic iron ore is only about 20 percent iron.
|
From page 115... ...
. The nonmetallic minerals that are ultimately transformed into inorganic chemicals (phosphates, potash, and soda ash)
|
From page 116... ...
Bauxite/ 8,246b 1,107b 7,140 Aluminum 8,970c 4,575 4,395 7,730 3,944 3,786 Copper 523,446 218,631 304,814 1,341 5,364 213,267 5,794 1,406 4,388 Gold 536,146 117,934 418,212 0.201 0.201 117,934 392 0.138 392 Lead 9,707 6,450 3,257 385 481 5,969 83,694 392 98 Molybdenum 127,006d 72,212 54,794 43 172 72,040 103 26 77 Platinum group 34,189 11,396e 22,793 0.005 0.005 11,396 0.0003 0.0003 Silver 48,444 15,876 32,568 1.661 1.661 15,874 2 1.718 Zinc 21,149 9,106e 12,043 244 432 8,674 429 241 188 Uranium oxidef 22,000 15,200 6,800 20 15,180 20 5 15 Nonferrous total 1,330,333 467,912 862,420 11,046 460,334 14,960 6,016 8,944 Iron total 300,278 197,766 102,512 57,515 140,251 83,694 49,242 34,452 TOTAL 1,630,611 665,678 964,932 68,561 600,581 98,654 55,258 43,396 aWhere direct figures for gross weight of concentrate were unavailable, they were calculated by applying reasonable concentration ratios to the metal content. bBauxite at U.S.
|
From page 117... ...
Abrasives, natural 232 156 156 156 76 0 Barite 404 404 404 0.205 1,207 1,611 0 0 Clays 83,370 44,633 44,515 3,535 33 41,013 38,737 118 Diatomite 3,420 695 629 147 0 482 2,725 66 Feldspar 649 649 649 12 287 924 0 0 Gypsum 18,325 14,869 14,869 246 8,782 23,405 3,456 0 Mica 130 130 130 6 12 136 0 0 Perlite 586 586 585 0 0 585 0 1 Phosphorus 451,778 224,075 45,389 0 0 45,389 227,703 178,686 Potassium salts 12,247 11,884 2,999 579 6,964 9,384 363 8,885 Pumice 423 374 353 1 28 380 49 21 Salt 34,470 34,470 34,470 802 4,966 38,634 0 0 Sand and gravel 863,640 863,640 863,531 1,837 357 862,051 0 109 Soda ash 15,728 15,728 8,738 2,238 257 6,757 0 6,990 Stone (estimate) 1,151,000 1,150,000 1,148,533 3,304 3,300 1,148,529 1,000 1,467 Talc, soapstone, 1,179 1,234 1,234 382 80 932 –54 0 pyrophilite USE OF MATERIALS BALANCES TO ESTIMATE AGGREGATE WASTE Vermiculite 3,393 1,769 275 18 32 289 1,624 1,495 TOTAL 2,640,974 2,365,295 2,167,459 13,108 26,305 2,180,656 275,679 197,836 SOURCE: Bureau of Mines (1988, 1989)
|
From page 118... ...
The mass flows and wastes in the coal system are shown in Figure 4. Petroleum and natural gas production involve relatively little waste, except water.
|
From page 119... ...
Ash SO x NO x CaSO 4 USE OF MATERIALS BALANCES TO ESTIMATE AGGREGATE WASTE CO 2 FIGURE 4 Mass flows in the U.S. coal sector, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 120... ...
Further losses occur in local distribution. Petroleum Refining23 Total output of crude oil in the United States in 1988 was 402.6 MMT.
|
From page 121... ...
Production Exports Imports Consumption Commodity Raw Finisheda Raw Finished Raw Finished Raw Finished Refinery Inputs Crude oil 402.585 0.634 269.053 680.687 Feedstocks 16.864 22.585 Natural gas liquids 51.325 1.617 7.108 16.230 Refinery Products Liquid petroleum gas 15.906 56.272 Motor gas 297.439 1.069 19.351 315.690 Aviation gas 1.020 0.020 1.074 Jet fuel 63.935 1.362 3.802 66.893 Kerosene 4.347 0.054 0.173 4.689 Diesel 143.258 3.419 12.943 146.315 Residual fuel oil 56.789 11.044 32.818 61.429 Naphtha 6.170 0.479 3.216 8.864 Petroleum coke 36.131 15.344 0.110 20.709 Other 54.073 2.626 5.865 57.072 Total Petroleum 402.585 679.068 0.634 35.397 269.053 78.298 719.502 739.007 Coal and coke 862.066 29.397 86.203 0.992 1.936 2.439 801.647 30.844 Natural gas USE OF MATERIALS BALANCES TO ESTIMATE AGGREGATE WASTE (18.02 kg/TJ) 424.990 335.028 2.870 302.100 Total other fuel 1,287.056 364.425 86.203 0.992 1.936 5.310 801.647 332.940 TOTAL 1,689.640 1,043.493 86.837 36.389 270.989 83.610 1,521.149 1,071.947 aFinished values may exceed raw values because "finished" refers to refinery products whose inputs may have been imported.
|
From page 122... ...
VOCs from petroleum refining include significant quantities of BTX and other aromatics, many of which are carcinogenic.25 Crude oil contains small quantities, on the order of 0.1 percent depending on its origin, of sulfur and mineral ash. For example, Venezuelan oil is particularly high in sulfur.
|
From page 123... ...
The latter are derived mostly from natural gas, natural gas liquids, or petrochemical feedstocks. Inorganic Chemicals26 Inorganic chemicals are derived either from nonmetallic minerals such as sulfur, phosphates, potash, soda ash, and salt or from the atmosphere.
|
From page 124... ...
AYRES AND LESLIE W AYRES including International Energy Agency (1991)
|
From page 125... ...
In summary, we can account for about 0.737 MMT of fixed nitrogen embodied in products of the synthetic organic chemicals sector and on the order of 0.16 MMT of nitrogenous losses associated with organic synthesis, for a total of 0.9 MMT. In terms of environmental pollution, the 2 percent loss rate suggested above is insignificant compared with dissipative uses of nitrogenous chemicals.
|
From page 126... ...
2 POTASH Crude ore CONCEN- Potash TRONA Crude ore CONCEN- 8.74 3 11.9 (1.52 K 2O 15.7 Soda ash MINING TRATION equivalent) MINING TRATION 0.4 Overburden 8.8 Overburden 7 Concentration wastes Concentration wastes FIGURE 6 Phosphates, potash, and soda ash production in the United States, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 127... ...
(CH4 ) 16.9 CO2 Losses FIGURE 7 Mass flows associated with production of sulfur compounds, salts, and ammonia in the United States, 1988 (million metric 127 tons)
|
From page 128... ...
Industrial inorganic chemicals, including pigments, consumed about 0.9 MMT S, mostly as acid. Of the sulfur used in chemicals, 0.566 MMT was eventually converted into ammonium sulfate fertilizer, mostly as a by-product of other chemical processes that use sulfuric acid (e.g., caprolactam, a nylon monomer, and hydrogen cyanide)
|
From page 129... ...
Elemental chlorine and sodium hydroxide (NaOH, or caustic soda) are coproduced by electrolysis of sodium chloride (salt)
|
From page 130... ...
. The use of elemental chlorine for bleaching in the pulp and paper industry has become a very contentious subject in recent years, due to the discovery of dioxin traces in bleached paper products.
|
From page 131... ...
Evidently, around 60 percent was used in organic chemicals, half olefin based and half aromatic (e.g., phenol) based.
|
From page 132... ...
Most sodium-containing inorganic chemicals such as sodium silicate or sodium dichromate start from less-expensive sodium carbonate (soda ash) , rather than sodium hydroxide.
|
From page 133... ...
Virtually no copper or chromium was used in the manufacture of synthetic organic chemicals, except as catalysts. All chemical uses of chromium except for electroplating are essentially dissipative.
|
From page 134... ...
All final uses are dissipative. Synthetic Organic Chemicals30 Most organic industrial chemicals are based on petrochemical (hydrocarbon)
|
From page 135... ...
Some of this production, especially C4–C5 and higher-order aliphatics, was not actually used to manufacture other chemicals. Some was used as an octane booster in gasoline or as a solvent; some was converted to hydrogen, mostly used in the refining process, or to carbon black.31 However, most downstream synthetic organic chemicals are derived from the above-mentioned sources or the previously discussed inorganic intermediates.
|
From page 136... ...
Because the reaction requires two moles of caustic soda per mole of sulfuric acid, it would consume 1.22 mass units of sulfuric acid per unit of caustic soda. Thus, if 4.2 MMT of caustic soda was neutralized in the organic sector, we would have needed 5.15 MMT of sulfuric acid.34 Based on the above analysis, we argue that, in the synthetic organic chemicals sector, the ratio of sulfuric acid to caustic soda, in mass units, must be close to 1.22.
|
From page 137... ...
organic chemical industry, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 138... ...
Adding these, we arrive at a grand total of 61 MMT of produced chemicals and 2 MMT of oxygen as inputs to organic synthesis in the United States in 1988, not including oxygen that is used for combustion purposes and finishes as carbon dioxide. The major outputs, in terms of sales, of the organic chemicals industry amounted to 39.1 MMT in 1988 (and 39.5 MMT in 1989)
|
From page 139... ...
, fuels, fluxes, and processing chemicals. Because we have accounted for inputs to and wastes from fossil fuel combustion in an above section, those quantities are not included in our accounting of wastes from primary metals smelting and refining.
|
From page 140... ...
Slag consists of the silica and other nonferrous minerals in the sinter and pellets and the materials in the fluxes. Total iron blast furnace slag production in the United States was 14.2 MMT, or 0.28 MT of slag per metric ton of pig iron.
|
From page 141... ...
The oxygen in the alumina reacts with a carbon anode made from petroleum coke. The reaction emits 0.65 MT of CO2 per metric ton of primary aluminum produced.
|
From page 142... ...
The oxygen required to burn this carbon away was therefore approximately 8 MMT, implying a CO2 output of 11 MMT for steel production in 1988. In the case of iron blast furnaces, we assumed that all of the input coke, less the 3 MMT of C embodied in pig iron, was converted to CO2.
|
From page 143... ...
iron and steel sectors, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 144... ...
nonferrous metals sector, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 145... ...
It appears that the major waste emissions from this sector, exclusive of losses in quarrying and concentration, are primarily related to combustion of fossil fuels and calcination of limestone and gypsum, which yields CO2. However, Science Applications International Corporation (1985)
|
From page 146... ...
(It is disposed of in landfills as a mixture of wet calcium sulfite CaSO3 and calcium sulfate CaSO4.) EPA estimated that flue gas desulfurization by utilities produced 14.4 MMT of solid wastes in 1984 (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1988, 1991)
|
From page 147... ...
In fact, the cement industry also uses a small amount of fly ash as a raw material. Coal ash contains significant quantities of heavy metals.
|
From page 148... ...
Tires Fluids FIGURE 11 Mass flows associated with private automobiles in the United States, 1988 (million metric tons)
|
From page 149... ...
Gaseous combustion products constituted another very large waste stream. We estimate gross emissions of 5,046 MMT CO2, of which 4,726 MMT were from fossil fuel combustion.
|
From page 150... ...
c (−21.3) c Forestry, pulp, paper 4.9 18.1 –545 −368 −74 +314 +132 +206 Mining 965d 600.6d 275.7e 140.7e 5,600f 47f 9.8 6–7g 57g Petroleum refiningh (76.5)
|
From page 151... ...
eNonmetallic mineral mining in United States, excluding alumina and phosphate concentration wastes. fCoal mining, not including coke-oven emissions.
|
From page 152... ...
, United States Department of Agriculture (1992) , and Bureau of Census (1988)
|
From page 153... ...
Phosphorus metal and phosphoric acid from phosphorus are both also included with inorganic chemicals.
|
From page 154... ...
; data on shipments of inorganic chemicals from are Chemical and Engineering News (1997) ; and data on production and shipments of synthetic organic chemicals are from either Chemical and Engineering News (1997)
|
From page 155... ...
1992. Synthetic Organic Chemicals 1992.
|
From page 156... ...
1992. Current Industrial Reports: Inorganic Chemicals.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.