Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
10 chapter two LITERATURE REVIEW OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES IN THE UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION This chapter provides an overview of the specific industries involved with energy development and their activities related to transportation throughout the United States. The informa- tion reported will assist in defining context to the types of energy development, the magnitude of their activities, and the extent to which they are impacting roads and bridges both on and off the National Highway System. This is accom- plished through a review of the literature and insight pro- vided through interviews with officials of federal agencies and tribal representatives that present examples of effective practices to address impacts on infrastructure. Table 2 provides a summary of the major findings pre- sented in chapter two. Table D1 in Appendix D includes a more detailed summary of practices reported by the five focus states. SUMMARY OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES The following sections highlight various approaches to extract or generate energy sources in the United States. The develop- ment of these industries is impacting transportation infrastruc- ture managed by federal, state, and local governments, and this section provides examples of how these energy input materials or output products are transported. Ever since the Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century, vast quantities of fossil fuels have been used to power the economy and deliver unprecedented affluence to huge numbers of people. Petroleum, coal, and natural gas are major fossil fuels. During the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels appeared to be the ideal energy source. Steam locomo- tives, the quintessential machines of the Industrial Revolu- tion, used coal as an early fuel source to compensate for a shortage of firewood and charcoal. Not only was a seemingly inexhaustible supply of coal available from easily exploited seams near the surface, but it could be used in its natural form. Since the modest beginnings of the oil industry in the mid-19th century, petroleum has risen to global promi- nence. Initially, kerosene, used for lighting and heating, was the principal product derived from petroleum. However, the development of drilling technology for oil wells in mid-19th century America put the petroleum industry on a new foot- ing, leading to mass consumption of petroleum as a highly versatile fuel. Oil-powered automobiles, ships, airplanes, and other forms of transportation helped generate electricity, and were used for heating and hot water. The usage of fossil fuels increased in step with economic growth. Types of Current and Emerging Energy Development Industries Oil Crude oil is a nonrenewable fossil fuel formed when the remains of prehistoric plants, animals, and aquatic life were compressed by heat and pressure under the bed of seas or lakes over many years, and finally evolved into a fossil fuel. The oil is drilled and pumped from massive underground pockets and is processed by means of a system called dis tillation. Oil traf- fic can be classified into five types of movements: (1) inbound movement of sand, water, cement, scoria/gravel, drilling mud, and fuel; (2) inbound movement of chemicals; (3) outbound movement of oil and byproducts; (4) outbound movement of saltwater; and (5) movements of specialized vehicles such as workover rigs, fracturing rigs, cranes and utility vehicles (North Dakota State University 2013). Natural Gas Natural gas is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is closely related to oil and is drilled from the same wells as crude oil or is removed during the distilling process. Shale gas refers to natu- ral gas that is confined within shale formations. The production of natural gas from shale formations has revitalized the natural gas industry in the United States. Natural gas well develop- ment requires large volumes of moderately heavy trucks over rural roads (Wilke and Harrell 2011). Many low-volume local secondary roads with thin pavement sections can fail within hours of the heavy loading associated with energy-related activities. The new developments in drilling methods have allowed for higher rates of production compared with verti- cal drilling methods. With advancements leading to horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing, it is now possible to drill in locations that were previously too difficult. A study by Pearce (2013) found that oil and gas drilling production is associated with increased traffic volumes and heavy truck traffic and that the increases are attributable to the substantial damages caused by increased heavy loads on flexible pavements.
11 Coal Coal is a nonrenewable fossil fuel produced worldwide, formed when millions of years of pressure and heat turn the remains of prehistoric forests and swamps into coal (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 2014). Coal is obtained from the earth either by deep mining or strip mining. Most coal is used by domestic power plants to generate electricity. Biofuel and Wood Biofuel contains energy from a geologically recent carbon fixa- tion and is produced from living organisms. Good examples of biofuel include those used for transportation, such as ethanol and biodiesel (made from biomass materials), which are gener- ally combined with the petroleum fuels (ZME Science 2007). Wood is a renewable resource that is considered the his- toric and traditional source of energy (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 2014). Wood is considered a form of a bio- fuel arising from multiple sources, including forests, other Fracturing proppants (i.e., sand, man-made ceramic materials, etc.) are a necessary component in hydraulic frac- turing, as is the hauling in and out of water. The tonnage of sand required per well is commonly estimated to be 150 tons per segment and up to 20 segments per horizontal well, result- ing in 3,000 tons per well. As the natural gas drilling industry continues to expand, the possible annual demand is between 40 and 60 million tons of fracking sand. In addition, approxi- mately 6 million gallons of water are generally needed to frack a well, and this water is primarily hauled to the site by a significant number of trucks. A study by Hart et al. (2013) reported that the American Petroleum Institute established standards for the fracking sand based on mesh sizes and added more mesh sizes in June 2012. More than 100 mines produce this type of sand in Wisconsin, and there are at least eight such mines in Minnesota. Some of the sand mines are all-inclusive, meaning that the mine, processing plant, and rail access are all in one location. In other mines the three com- ponents are in different locations, and the truck traffic is con- tained within the mining site, limiting the impacts primarily to local grade crossings with rail lines. State or Organization Practice(s) Reported to Address Energy Development Impacts Arkansas Use of AASHTO Pavement Design equation to predict asphalt pavement performance on low- volume roads subjected to heavy loads from energy development activities. ARAN measurement of low-volume pavement conditions, along with mapping of existing and permitted wells. Development of crack index for all routes accessed by energy developers and analysis of all roads with rut depths greater than 1 inch. Minnesota Heavy Traffic Generation tool to estimate pavement damage and associated repair and reconstruction costs on local roads affected during the construction of wind turbine developments. Truck weight education classes hosted by Minnesota DOT Local Technical Assistance Program (LTAP) for energy company haulers, law enforcement officers, and local agencies. State legislation allows for special hauling permits for heavy vehicles with added axles, enabling permit fees to be deposited into a special account at Minnesota DOT for use in bridge inspections and signage. Missouri Permit fees applied to energy developers reflect the number of permits issued by Missouri DOT. Montana State legislation to address funding and operations demands on roads with infrastructure degradation. Planning forecast studies identified high-use corridors for energy development to facilitate design modifications and accelerate reconstruction projects to satisfy forecasted demands. Facilitation of multimodal shift (use of rail and pipeline for oil industry) and consolidation of shipping locations (for energy and non-energy commodities) to higher demand locations. New Jersey Retrofit of WIM sites to virtual WIMs for law enforcement officials to collect real-time weight data from trucks active passing on highways. Researching the impacts of OS/OW loads on pavements and bridges to quantify the structural damage these vehicles cause. Damage translated to cost over time revises the fee structure for OS/OW permits. Deterioration modeling tool developed to assist DOT in decision-support and planning capacities. Three Affiliated Tribes (TAT) Lump sum royalty payments and maintenance agreements with energy companies; 5% gross value tax applied to oil produced from an American Indian holding within the boundary of a reservation. U.S. Forest Service Road Use Permits for energy development activities can require energy developers to pay for repair or reconstruction of roads directly or through donation of materials and/or equipment. Generation of traffic volume statistics and speed studies; load postings on roads and bridges during thaw period (February to April); upgrade to full two-lane roads in areas where pavements are continually damaged. Wisconsin Traffic impact analyses; use of road upgrade maintenance agreements with developers; truck tonnage projections; and use of FWD and GPR to establish seasonal load restrictions for roads. Wyoming Funds appropriated to assess current county road conditions to develop transportation asset management systems. Sources: Literature review and interviews with federal agencies. TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF MAJOR PRACTICES REPORTED TO ADDRESS ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS
12 governments with stronger pre-existing infrastructure com- pared with the rural roads originally designed for the move- ment of light traffic or farm equipment. The study concluded that, on the whole, recent energy development has provided net fiscal benefits to local governments. It also points out that the use of in-kind operation agreements with developers can help to mitigate potential roadway maintenance and repair costs for local governments. IMPACTS ON PUBLIC ROADS AND BRIDGES AS A RESULT OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT The 2013 report on Critical Issues in Transportation stated that the changes in energy supplies are affecting freight services (Transportation Research Board 2013). The report found that geographic shifts in oil and gas supply have greatly expanded the transport of oil by truck and rail. In addition, the drilling of new oil and gas wells implies the movement of heavy equipment, fracking sands, water and other supplies to rural locations, which may have roads and bridges that are susceptible to the heavy traffic. Shale plays are all over the country, so municipalities nationwide are facing issues and receiving benefits from the burgeoning domestic oil and gas industry. Energy development directly contributed $545 bil- lion to the U.S. economy in 2011 and, of that, the Eagle Ford shale play in South Texas contributed nearly $25 billion that year (Tunstall et al. 2012). Information found in the published literature is summa- rized in the next several sections, organized by state. Arkansas Beginning in 2006, the central part of Arkansas began seeing a boom in horizontal natural gas well drilling. The activity was primarily concentrated in Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (Arkansas DOT) Districts 5 and 8 (Wright-Kehner 2008; Meadors and Wright-Kehner 2013). In 2008, the state had a little more than 2,800 wells. By 2010, more than 4,000 wells were scattered throughout the two districts. There are natural gas developments in the Fayetteville shale of Arkansas. The Shale Public Finance study (Raimi and Newell 2014) reported that the leading revenue source for county governments in the Fayetteville shale region has stemmed from property taxes. Although the counties also incurred new road maintenance and repair costs, the costs were limited to a large extent by agreements between the counties and a number of energy companies who assisted in repairing roads damaged during operations. The Arkansas DOT started to monitor the increase in truck traffic and associated pavement damages and determined that low-volume roads were experiencing 20-year accumulated traffic loadings within a few months of exposure to energy- related traffic. A study by Meadors and Wright-Kehner (2013) wooded areas and trees outside forests, co-products from wood processing, post-consumer recovered wood, and processed wood-based fuels. Nuclear Nuclear energy is generated by a nuclear reaction, the split- ting of uranium atoms referred to as fission (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 2014). This fission process is then applied to generate heat to transform water into steam, which ulti- mately turns a turbine and generates electricity. There is not a significant amount of transportation required for activities related to nuclear energy. Solar and Wind Solar energy is a renewable energy derived from the sunâs rays and is converted directly into electricity by solar photovoltaic panels (Commonwealth of Pennsylvania 2014). Another form of renewable energy comes from wind movement and rotation, and activates an electricity generator. These sources of renew- able energy are free of emissions and are constantly available with continuous wind flow and solar activity. There has been a recent increase in the development of natural gas and other alternative energy sources, including wind farms, throughout North America (Wilke and Harrell 2011). Wind farms require movement of heavy equipment over low-volume, rural roads that were often not designed for the heavy loadings associated with this equipment. Examples of Energy Development Industries in the United States According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013), an extensive variety of energy development is occur- ring across the United States. Table 3 presents the types of energy development occurring in the states. COSTS AND REVENUE SOURCES FOR PUBLIC AGENCIES A recent economic study from Duke University on shale pub- lic finance revealed some relevant figures related to the fiscal impacts of shale and natural gas energy development on eight states (Raimi and Newell 2014). Table 4 shows a summary of eight states that were included in the study and indicated that the major costs to local governments involve the upkeep of roads. The major sources of revenue are also listed and the table shows that, although a variety of sources exist to address costs related to roads and staff (defined as govern- ment employees who spend time devoted to oil- and gas- related issues that divert them from other priorities), some states such as Colorado and North Dakota are paying out more than they are generating. The report stated that the eco- nomic impacts tend to incur less substantial costs for local
13 TABLE 3 ENERGY SECTORS BY STATE State Coal Mining Natural Gas Oil Biofuels Wind Solar Nuclear Alabama X X X X X Alaska X X X X X Arizona X X X X X X X Arkansas X X X X X California X X X X X X Colorado X X X X X X Connecticut X X Delaware X X X Florida X X X X X Georgia X X X Hawaii X X X Idaho X X Illinois X X X X X X X Indiana X X X X X X Iowa X X X Kansas X X X X X X Kentucky X X X X X Louisiana X X X X X Maine X X Maryland X X X X X X Massachusetts X X X X Michigan X X X X X Minnesota X X X Mississippi X X X X X Missouri X X X X X X Montana X X X X Nebraska X X X X X Nevada X X X X X New Hampshire X X X New Jersey X X X X New Mexico X X X X X X New York X X X X X X North Carolina X X X North Dakota X X X X X Ohio X X X X X X X Oklahoma X X X X X (continued on next page)
14 traffic loadings. Using the AASHTO pavement design equa- tion for structural number and the nomographs, it was esti- mated that most pavements on low-volume roads would service truckloads from the oil and gas activities, suitable for approximately 40 trucks per day average daily truck traffic (ADTT), for less than one year. assessed the structural capabilities of pavements on low- volume roads and found that the increased loadings associ- ated with oil and gas operations would substantially increase the rate of pavement deterioration. The study compared local paved roads to the stateâs secondary, primary, and Interstate pavements and found local roads more vulnerable to increased State Coal Mining Natural Gas Oil Biofuels Wind Solar Nuclear Oregon X X X X Pennsylvania X X X X X X X Rhode Island X South Carolina X X South Dakota X X X Tennessee X X X X X X X Texas X X X X X X X Utah X X X X X X Vermont X X X X Virginia X X X X X Washington X X X West Virginia X X X X X Wisconsin X X X Wyoming X X X X Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (2013). TABLE 3 (continued) TABLE 4 SUMMARY OF MAJOR REVENUE SOURCES AND COSTS FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENTS IN STATES WITH SHALE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT Source: Adapted from Raimi and Newell (2014). Note: Pennsylvania Major Revenue: In 2012 Pennsylvania enacted legislation, Act 13, which imposes an âimpact feeâ on each new unconventional gas well drilled in the state. State Major Revenue Source(s) Major Cost(s) Net F iscal Impact Arkansas Property taxes, in-kind contributions (road repairs) Roads Medium to large net positive Colorado Property taxes, severance tax revenue, in-kind contributions (road repair) Roads, staff costs Small net negative to large net positive Louisiana Lease revenue, sales taxes Roads, staff costs Medium to large net positive Montana Severance tax revenue Roads, staff costs [insufficient data] North Dakota Severance tax distributions, sales taxes Roads, staff costs Small to medium net negative Pennsylvania Act 13 distributions Staff costs Small to large net positive Texas Property taxes Roads, staff costs Neutral to large net positive Wyoming Property taxes, sales taxes Roads, staff costs Large net positive
15 county road was observed to have developed rutting more than 1 inch deep. For biofuel plants, road damage occurs not only during plant construction but is ongoing as a result of the continual hauling of raw product to the plant and finished products to market. Pavement and gravel road repairs were more numer- ous in the year or two years following the beginning of oper- ations of a biofuel plant (Gkritza et al. 2011). The damage to county roads was attributed to biofuel operations (construc- tion and hauling), and deterioration of the unpaved roads around plants was more rapid, often exhibiting a significant amount of damage within the first year of plant operation, when combined with the effects of bad weather. A follow-up to the September 2010 report Investiga- tion of the Impacts of Rural Development on Iowaâs Sec- ondary Road Systems (Taylor et al. 2010) outlined the impacts of specific types of rural development, rural resi- dential subdivisions, and livestock production. Although not directly related to energy development, the report did detail several relevant findings that address issues also faced by local governments when dealing with the impacts of energy development activities. Table 5 summarizes the local ordinances, county codes, and state legislation that was reported in interviews to be useful by the agencies in Iowa that have noticed impacts from energy development in their jurisdictions. Montana Counties in Montana were reported generally to have received large revenues from the stateâs severance tax. However, munic- ipalities in Montana face more infrastructure costs than they have the revenue to address (Raimi and Newell 2014), a circumstance attributed to municipalitiesâ limited share of severance tax revenue share. New York A study in New York state estimated that 1,148 one-way loaded truck trips are generated per well, assuming that all water is brought in by truck and that using pipelines instead of trucks to move water reduces this dramatically (Tidd 2013). The report indicated that shale development will result in both increased heavy traffic and increased employment and population, which also generate traffic demand. The implica- tions for transportation planning include economic vitality, safety, congestion, system preservation, financial resources, linking transportation and land use, air quality, transportation conformity, and environmental justice. The report mentioned that the New York State Department of Environmental Con- servation has a revised 2012 draft Shell Gas Environmental Impact Study on the oil and natural gas mining regulatory program. The Nature Conservancy also produced an assess- ment of the potential impacts of high-volume hydraulic The Arkansas DOT did not encourage the piping of water to wells because the pipes would be run through highway rights-of-way (ROW); thus, the majority of wells were hauled water wells (Meadors and Wright-Kehner 2013). A well drilled vertically (an older technology) resulted in approxi- mately 1,100 equivalent single axle loads (ESALs) per well on local roadways, whereas piped water wells each resulted in approximately 1,800 ESALs per drilling, and hauled wells resulted in more than 2,800 ESALs per drilling. It was found that none of the non-Interstate roadways in central Arkan- sas were designed to carry this level of ESALs. The public reported to the Arkansas DOT increased incidences of bro- ken axles resulting from a large number of sizable potholes. Arkansas DOT investigated pavement conditions and found that 812 miles of roadway were affected. Colorado The Douglas County (Colorado) Oil and Gas Production Transportation Impact Study considered high, medium, and low development scenarios to quantify range of the impacts of energy development (Felsburg Holt & Ullevig, and BBC Research & Consulting 2012). The study team randomly selected pad sites based on existing lease data, travel demand modeling of impact on specific roads, roadway repair cost assessment, and tax revenue assessment. The study identified a major issue with revenue lag in that it takes one to three years between the timing of existing infrastructure needs and the identification of capital revenues. This finding was cor- roborated by the conclusion drawn in the Raimi and Newell (2014) study on shale public finance, which indicated that in some counties in Colorado, the roadway costs had increased faster than the revenues. Iowa Variations in traffic patterns have been observed when energy industry developers use low-volume roads. In Iowa, the trucks that tended to haul to elevators and river accesses in the past have now changed, as the plants have relocated to new areas (Nahra 2013). During wind farm construction, construction loads are severe and were noted to cause roadway damages. To address large loads delivering wind farm components, some temporary road embankments were built to accommodate the movement of machinery as a result of tight turning radii at rural intersections. The major damage occurs during construc- tion activities and on gravel or unpaved roads. In addition to routine maintenance repairs, additional damage caused by the hauling of heavy transformers, turbine parts, moving cranes, and multiple loads of construction materials is observed within one to one and a half years after construction. The transporta- tion of heavy electrical transformers to towers is reported to be more damaging to the roadways when there is wet weather or frost in the spring. For example, after moving one of the heavy transformers, an 8.5-inch thick asphalt pavement on a
16 Pennsylvania Bloser and Ziegler (2013) reported that environmental con- cerns arise as a result of roadway deterioration resulting from energy development, including surface water problems. Sur- face water issues may pose greater environmental or health safety risk, resulting from accelerated erosion and potential chemical spills. Sediment is reported to be the largest pollut- ant by volume to inland waters, and the study concluded that more research is necessary to quantify the road impacts on watershed level variations in flow, water quality, and aquatic ecological changes. A study by Koser (2013) reported that during Marcellus shale developments, the associated truck trips generated are on average 1,450 trucks per well development, considering all of the trucks required for pad development, drilling opera- tions, fracking, and reclaiming. Pennsylvania DOT can post weight restrictions on its roadways, thus requiring the heavy user to obtain a permit with an Excess Maintenance Agree- ment (EMA). The Pennsylvania DOT EMA requires (1) an initial inspection to establish the base condition of roadway; (2) user responsible for excess maintenance; (3) approval of the maintenance plan; (4) routine roadway condition sur- veys for heavy users; and (5) a security, which is typically fracking on forest resources in Tioga County, New York, in 2011. North Dakota A study by the Upper Great Plains Transportation Institute at the North Dakota State University (2013) reported that the size and mass difference between 80,000-pound trucks and 4,000- pound passenger vehicles, combined with operational differ- ences such as acceleration and deceleration rates and turning radii, heighten the risk for crashes to occur. Truck crashes that involved injuries (per vehicle miles traveled, or VMT) increased by 80% between 2002 and 2012. The study also found that 62% of truck crashes that resulted in injuries occurred between July and December and 82% of them occurred during weekdays. Approximately 86% of the severe truck crashes involved mul- tiple vehicles and of those, 23% occurred on hills and 36% at intersections. Furthermore, 68% of the crashes at intersections were a result of left-hand turns. In most crashes, weather was the most common contributing factor. In observing the trends in truck crashes involving injuries, the number of crashes in oil regions has increased steadily since 2002, whereas the crashes in non-oil regions have remained constant with only a slight increase in recent years. Code or Legislation Impacts on Secondary Road System in Iowa Iowa Code Chapter 311 ⢠Permits counties to establish secondary road special assessment districts for the improvement of secondary roads. The usefulness of this authority is limited by the necessity for a petition of affected landowners to initiate a district, and the geographic limitation on the reach of the special assessment district. County Zoning Act ⢠Permits counties to place conditions on rezoning requests and site plan approvals that are âreasonable and imposed to satisfy public needs which are directly caused by the requested change.â ⢠Permits county boards of adjustment to grant special exceptions/conditional use permits âsubject to appropriate conditions and safeguards.â Subdivision Act ⢠Permits counties that have adopted subdivision ordinances to place conditions on plat (subdivision) approval that ârequire the installation of public improvements in conjunction with approval.â ⢠Permits cities that have adopted subdivision ordinances to exercise extraterritorial jurisdiction over subdivisions and plats of survey within 2 miles of their borders. This is the case in all counties (counties with or without subdivision regulations). Iowa Legislature ⢠Not yet adopted legislation authorizing local governments to charge impact fees to offset the burdens placed on public infrastructure by new developments. Iowa Supreme Court ⢠Ruled that local government monetary charges associated with permit approvals are limited to charges that cover administrative expenses, in the absence of impact fee-enabling legislation, and do not allow for compensation of the local government for any development impacts on public infrastructure. Source: Adapted from Taylor et al. (2010). TABLE 5 LEGISLATION OR CODES POTENTIALLY USEFUL FOR ADDRESSING ENERGY IMPACTS ON SECONDARY ROADS IN IOWA
17 Texas The Center for Transportation Research at the University of Texas at Austin reported that the truck traffic impacts of the wind industry on the transportation system is causing increased damage to the pavement structure when shifting from higher to lower functional roadway classes (Prozzi et al. 2011, 2012). The transportation of wind turbine components on Interstate highways represents approximately 0.03% of additional damage, whereas it represents about 4% on U.S. highway sections. The development of natural gas wells results in a significant increase in truck traffic owing to the movement of materials and equipment, building the pad site and access roads, the drilling and fracking operations, and saltwater disposal from the site. The crude oil supply chain traffic consists of well development, oil production, and petrol gasoline distribution that all have different transpor- tation impacts. The construction phase of an oil well develop- ment involves building access roads to the site, rigging up, drilling, rigging down, and well completion. The entire opera- tion involves numerous truck trips to and from the well site to bring materials and equipment necessary for constructing of oil or gas wells. The mobilization of the rotary rig requires OS/OW permits, whereas all the remaining loads are trans- ported on conventional combination trucks. It was observed that the VMT of the construction traffic was more or less evenly distributed among U.S. highways, state highways, and farm-to-market roads, with a slightly lower utilization of the Interstate system. The production traffic associated with crude oil development is mostly responsible for the transportation of oil from tank batteries located near the well site to the pipeline breakout stations. Table 6 presents trans- portation and operational features of energy development activities in Texas, and how raw goods and exhumed energy products are moved logistically on roadway networks. The study concluded that activities related to natural gas extrac- tion results in an average reduction in pavement service life of 30% in the presence of construction traffic. The activi- ties related to oil were reported to result in approximately an average of 2% reduction in pavement service life owing to bonding. Municipalities in Pennsylvania can pass ordinances allowing posting and bonding of roadways or can elect to use the Roadway User Maintenance Agreements. Also in Pennsylvania, the brine produced from oil and gas wells and other sources, such as brine treatment plants and brine wells, have been used as a dust suppressant and road stabilizer on unpaved secondary road systems. The Penn- sylvania Department of Environmental Protection (2013) reported that there are some environmental concerns with the usage of brine because of the potential for contaminants from brine to leach into surface or ground waters. South Dakota Wind and ethanol energy development projects in northeast South Dakota have led to significant damage and are affected by the geometry of the roads, as reported by a study con- ducted by Skorseth (2013). A major problem was that existing roads were too narrow for trucks, resulting in added routes to keep trucks from simultaneously utilizing roads. These added routes consequently increased the number of miles of roads affected by the transportation of energy sectors. The result was that local agencies were struggling to determine the most effective road restoration alternatives. It was also reported that existing road conditions, such as the depth of gravel to asphalt surfacing, roadway width, general surface conditions, and damage should be noted before any heavy truck traffic begins and continue to be inspected at reasonable intervals thereafter, after heavy or prolonged rainfall, and at the end of the project. The study suggested that to reduce impacts on local roads, local agencies should be proactive when these energy development projects are permittedâthe impact on local roads is invariably greater than anticipated. The docu- mentation of existing road conditions and preemptive plan- ning for additional impacts are to be conducted in advance and the energy industry required to participate in any road improvements and restorations as a result of their activity, the study recommended. Energy Type Pavement Service Life Reduction Natural Gas Due to truck traffic associated with: ⢠Rig movements: 1% to 16% reduction ⢠Saltwater disposal: 1% to 34% reduction ⢠Construction: 4% to 53% reduction Overall (average) reduction in pavement service life: 30% from construction traffic Crude Oil Due to truck traffic associated with: ⢠Construction: 1% to 3% reduction ⢠Production: 2% to 16% reduction Overall (average) reduction in pavement service life: 2% due to the construction traffic and 9% due to the production traffic Sources: Adapted from Barton (2013) and Prozzi et al. (2011). TABLE 6 MOVEMENT OF ENERGY-RELATED COMPONENTS AND PRODUCTS ON TEXAS ROADWAY NETWORK
18 ing in the condition of paved roads because these roadways can deteriorate more quickly and irrecoverably. Advancements in oil and gas technology have led to an increase in oil and gas production in the Niobrara shale for- mation located in parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Owing to the nature of the growth in this industry and the type of traffic associated with it, pavements on local county roads have exhibited rapid degradation. The Gravel Pavement Sur- face Evaluation and Rutting Manual (in Stroud 2013) pre- sents a system for rating and evaluating gravel roads. Thus far, the counties in Wyoming have reported little differ- ence in the condition of non-impacted roads compared with energy developmentâimpacted roadways, primarily a result of efforts by counties to sustain all of their roads in the same good conditions. LITERATURE REVIEW OF STRATEGIES USED BY FEDERAL AGENCIES AND STATES Table 7 provides examples from the review of published literature on strategies for addressing the impacts of energy development, as reported by federal agencies. The following sections present detailed information from the literature review on strategies published by state agen- cies and their affiliates, for addressing the impacts of energy development. The information from these states was found in the literature review and can be of interest to other states with similar circumstances or geographic features. Arkansas The Arkansas DOT interviewed all district engineers and some maintenance employees about the condition of the roads. The agency also increased its frequency of taking traffic counts using pneumatic tubes (previous counts predated the drill- ing boom) and found that some routes experienced three-fold increase in average daily traffic (ADT) over just three years (Meadors and Wright-Kehner 2013). The Arkansas DOT also mapped all existing and permitted wells, began a procedure of biannual field evaluations, and ran the Auto Road Analyzer (ARAN) over each mile of roads in the study. The ARAN provided pavement smoothness measurements, rutting and cracking information, pavement serviceability ratings, and pavement edge conditions at intervals of ¹â10 of a mile. Like- wise, the DOT staff performed a windshield survey every ¹â10 of a mile in areas where the data were incomplete and developed a crack index for the routes (mostly block and alli- gator cracking) and analyzed all routes where the rut depths exceeded 1 inch. Pavement edges were a particular problem, as a large pro- portion of the road edges were so degraded that the white lines delineating the lanes had been worn down. Many of the affected routes were never designed to have shoulders construction traffic. An average of 9% reduction in pavement service life was reported as a result of oil production traffic (Prozzi et al. 2011). The distribution of truck traffic attributable to energy development activities in Texas was researched in Quiroga et al. (2012). Heavy truck traffic was observed on all cor- ridors used for oil and gas activities, and these developments sustained a significant number of truckloads during both drilling and production. The truck traffic associated with the increased number of wind farms was present only dur- ing active construction and consisted of hauling both con- struction materials and wind turbine parts. The truck traffic associated with ethanol plants shipped grains, ethanol, and by-products to and from the plants, but some ethanol devel- opers are targeting the use of railroads to transport ethanol and by-products and have reduced the volume of trucks in some farm-to-market areas. It was also observed that some drivers frequently selected routes to and from energy devel- opments based on the avoidance of weigh stations and law enforcement in favor of better pavement or geometric condi- tions and/or preferred routes. As a result of energy-related activities, the main safety concerns for bridges in Texas include inadequate bridge widths for safely accommodating the drilling rigs and other OS/OW loads along with the large volumes of truck traffic. A report by Wilson (2012) showed that more than 1,000 Texas bridges are exposed to OS/OW conditions and are concen- trated in areas where there are energy developments. Texas DOT has found that proactive approaches to addressing road- way impacts have been more cost-effective in maintaining the infrastructure because permit fees are too low to recoup the costs of potential damage. Other damages to pavements are creating safety hazards for drivers, who drive across pot- holes, badly cracked asphalt, and damaged shoulders. These poor pavement conditions, and the drilling-related traffic that causes the damage, were reported by Batheja (2013) to be increasing the numbers of accidents on farm-to-market roads. In an attempt to increase safety, speed limits, signs, and traffic signals have been implemented. Wyoming In anticipation of increasing oil and gas drilling traffic on low-volume county roads in southeastern Wyoming, the Wyoming state legislature appropriated funds to assess cur- rent county road conditions and develop transportation asset management systems that counties could implement. Hun- tington et al. (2013) reported that unpaved roads can be reha- bilitated more easily and less expensively than paved roads in Wyoming. Wyoming DOT estimates a need of $2.7 million for improvements to unpaved roads, but there is currently $145 million in outstanding recommended improvements for county paved roads impacted by energy development activi- ties. The study concluded that there is more benefit in invest-
19 ing more prevalent in stabilizing renewable energy access roads throughout the world. These roads must withstand the short-term heavy loading and sustain low-volume mainte- nance vehicle access more than 25 to 50 years. The use of geosynthetics materials in low-volume roadways success- fully reduces maintenance concerns during construction and enhances the longevity of the roads. The study suggested that roadway agencies can seek compensation in the form of a development impact fee, based on the magnitude of the development, or a user fee based on measured damage to specific roads used by the developer. If development impact fees are adopted by roadway agencies, the fee is to be deter- mined according to the reduction in pavement life expected as a result of energy developmentârelated traffic. Iowa Nahra (2013) presented an approach to measure the incre- mental maintenance costs on pavement for new traffic gen- erated as a result of energy development. The approach consists of calculating the total ESALs resulting from energy development, comparing that total to the number of ESALs for which the road was designed, and basing the pavement deterioration rate on this value. The effects of overweight vehicle loads, such as road rutting, are causing counties to upgrade pavement design standards to better accommodate the heavier loads in areas of anticipated growth. Using this approach, some counties now design for 10 million ESALs for pavements that connect cooperatives to biofuel plants. and had lanes that were only 9 or 10 feet wide. A signifi- cant number of large and heavy trucks were not adhering to speed limits and were flipping over when their wheels went off the edge of road. After reviewing the roadways for this study, the DOT divided the roads into six conditions: slight, intermittent, or major damage, and with or without shoulder needs. Slight damage was indicative of reasonable condition where no repair work was needed. Intermittent damage was for pavements that required overlays, and the major damage required full reconstruction of the pavement and underlying layers. Approximately one-third of the miles studied fell into an intermittent damage with shoulder needs category. Sections of pavement on horizontal curves were the first pavement sections to show issues when heavy and frequent truck traffic began. Most of the trucks were measured at more than 120,000 pounds and were braking when entering the curves, leading to washboarding and shoving of the pave- ment. In these cases, the pavement failures were measured down to the subgrade layer. Idaho Case histories from Poland, Canada, and American Falls, Idaho, were reported in an article by Gale et al. (2013). The study found that ground support conditions of access roads are generally not considered in the development of wind energy sites and lead to soft subgrades that must be dealt with during construction. The use of geosynthetics is becom- Agency Strategies Reference Federal Highway Administration Defined design mechanisms for aggregate surfacing; Developed a model for use in native surfacing design, while considering the effects of maintenance and road management; Provided a set of procedures for surfacing design for low-volume roads. Earth and Aggregate Surfacing Design Guide for Low Volume Roads (Bolander et al. 1996) Federal Highway Administration Explained geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) technology and its fundamental characteristics as an alternative to other construction methods. Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil Integrated Bridge System Synthesis Report (Adams et al. 2011) Federal Highway Administration, National Highway Institute Manual to guide highway engineers in correctly identifying and evaluating potential applications for geosynthetic materials. Geosynthetic Design and Construction Guidelines (Holtz et al. 1998) Federal Highway Administration and South Dakota LTAP Manual to provide clearer understanding of the design and maintenance of gravel roads. Gravel Roads Maintenance and Design Manual (Skorseth and Selim 2000) United States Environmental Protection Agency Manual assists rural road owners in using natural systems and innovative technologies to reduce erosion, sediment, and dust pollution; Guidance for effective and efficient maintenance of dirt and gravel roads. Environmentally Sensitive Maintenance for Dirt and Gravel Roads (Center for Dirt and Gravel Road Studies 2014) TABLE 7 LITERATURE PUBLISHED THROUGH FEDERAL AGENCIES RELATED TO ADDRESSING IMPACTS FROM ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES
20 the energy production site. Because this was not the shortest route, considerable traffic began using other county roads as shortcuts, and although most of the loaded trucks used the appropriate state route to the site, they returned along county roads which were not designed for the loads carried. Even though the loads were lighter, the increased ADT increased the deterioration of the roadway pavements. The MPC projects about $8 million per year of increased revenue, about $3 million of which will be placed in Kemper Countyâs general fund for multiple purposes. About $5 million will go into a capital improvements fund; $3 million per year will be budgeted for upgrading roads and bridges. Kemper County reported that the MPC is also providing some bene- fits, starting with the upgrade of a 4-mile segment of county road that connects two state highways, estimated to cost approximately $2.6 million, and improving the strength of the pavements on county road connectors to state highways. The MPC will take a number of lower-quality dirt roads and low-volume paved roads out of service as part of their min- ing. The company has committed to restoring those roads to the current design standards for both gravel and paved roads, which will be a significant enhancement over what is in place currently. When a road is taken out of service, other local roads will be more heavily traveled, and the MPC has com- mitted to spend about $100,000 to improve the riding surface on these roads. Montana Montana DOT monitors population and subsequent traffic growth to ensure roadway quality, safety, sensitivity to the environment, and economic vitality, according to a com- prehensive study regarding the impacts of Bakken Region Oil development on Montanaâs transportation and economy (Brown et al. 2013). Figure 1 depicts the overall monitoring process used by Montana DOT. New York In New York, uncertainty about the timing and location of future shale gas development limits the ability of transporta- tion agencies to consider shale gasârelated impacts in long- range planning (Tidd 2013). Approaches used to forecast land use change for planning (build-out analyses, scenario planning, expert panels/Delphi method, etc.) may be adapt- able to shale gas well development. Planning organizations can attempt to address uncertainty with a range of possible outcomes and monitoring, and examples are available for metro politan planning organizations (MPOs) to alter as needed to fit their situation. The study cited a few effective practices, starting with the idea that planning organizations should generate a complete set of baseline data on any existing activities, in order to characterize any trends. In doing so, the planning organiza- Other counties have designed for triple the level of ESALs compared with the previous design standard. One county instituted a Road Preservation Ordinance that issues permits as a source of funds for the repair of road damages caused by the renewable energy industry. Minnesota Interstates, state highways, county state-aid highways, and county roads are all utilized to transport wind turbine com- ponents in Minnesota. Pavements that are designed to carry lower levels of traffic were not intended to carry these heavy loads. A report by the Minnesota Department of Transporta- tion developed a Heavy Traffic Generation tool that allows users to estimate the damage that may be caused to pave- ments on local roadways during the heavy construction traf- fic associated with wind turbine developments (Minnesota DOT 2012). The tool allows for the estimation of repair and reconstruction costs on affected roadways. Mississippi In an interview, the county engineer for three counties in Mississippi described two counties that have experienced impacts from oil and gas production. Jasper County houses the largest petroleum producer in Mississippi, and a state-of- the-art power plant was being constructed in Kemper County. Oil production has been ongoing since the mid-1940s using conventional drilling techniques. Energy companies are now using carbon dioxide injection to recover an additional 30% to 40% of the oil. This has increased activity and caused more damage to county roads. The counties receive part of a severance tax from petro- leum that is extracted within their jurisdictional limits. New legislation recently passed by the state of Mississippi is expected to increase the county severance tax allocation up to $600,000 per year. Although the entire amount is not allo- cated to roads and bridges, a significant portion is. Carbon dioxide facilities are classified as green energy activities. As a result, energy developers receive significant tax benefits and exemptions, in accordance with both state and federal laws. Therefore, many of the facilities that the energy devel- opers construct are tax exempt. In Kemper County, the Mississippi Power Company (MPC) is constructing a new power plant that will be fueled by recovering gas from natural lignite. The new power plant is based on an innovative technology and employs 6,000 to 7,000 personnel on the site. Although a great deal of heavy traffic is not expected once the plant is operational, a tremen- dous influx of both construction traffic and employee traffic has been observed on low-volume county roads. The interview cited an example in which the Missis- sippi DOT upgraded a state highway for primary access to
21 the period during which hauling activities take place. When a heavy hauler wishes to exit its EMA, it must return the roadway to either the original condition or a better condition. PennDOT defines a heavy user as a hauler that has substan tial risk for causing excess damage to the roads, generally defined as having more than 700 loads or greater per year. The natural gas industry and larger coal operations were reported to generally fall into this category in Pennsylvania. In terms of cost recovery, PennDOT invoices heavy users for costs such as the initial and final inspections, periodic construction inspections, road condition surveys, and plans review. Texas Texas state bill SB 1747 gives counties the ability to cre ate County Energy Transportation Reinvestment Zones. The legislation was widely supported by the oil and gas indus try. A formula was created for grant distribution for counties that designate an energy transportation reinvestment zone. The formula appropriates 20% to counties based on weight tolerance permits issued in the preceding fiscal year, 20% according to oil and gas production taxes in the preceding fiscal year, 50% determined by well completions in the pre ceding fiscal year, and 10% according to the volume of oil and gas waste injected in the preceding fiscal year. It includes requirements for an advisory board and for holding a pub lic hearing on the creation of the zone, and on its benefits to the county and to the property in the proposed zone. It also established an ad valorem tax increment account for the zone, funded by the taxes collected on property in a zone, to be used for transportation projects located in the zone. An alternative exists that allows a county to create a road utility district (with the same boundaries as the zone) which may issue bonds. tions can determine whether shale gas development impacts are significant enough to require special consideration when developing the population and employment totals for trans portation modeling. In addition, planners are recommended to include the full range of shale gasârelated impacts on trans portation, including air quality, congestion, safety, socio economics, and system maintenance. North Dakota A study by North Dakota State University (2010) concluded that load limits must be imposed during the spring thaw as a result of soils being unable to effectively support heavy loads. This is because the modulus of poor soils may drop below 5,000 psi, causing a drastic change from the approximately 12,000 psi (frozen) modulus and, as a result, the relative dam age from loads increased up to 400%. Spring load restrictions were reported to typically last six to eight weeks, depending on the soil conditions. Ideally, roads that are most heavily traveled by heavy trucks would be free from seasonal load restrictions. The study reported that the North Dakota DOT has developed a predictive model for use in the western part of the state that could be adaptable to other states and provinces. Pennsylvania The Pennsylvania DOT (PennDOT) performs routine road way condition surveys on roads impacted by energy develop ment activities (Koser 2013). If survey results show damage levels to be significant, a fiveÂday notification letter is issued (through certified mail) and, if not satisfactorily handled, the energy companyâs permit is suspended. If the roadway conditions are very degraded, then the permit is immediately suspended. The goal is to maintain the roadway to a condi tion at least equivalent to the original conditions throughout FIGURE 1 Montana DOT monitoring process (Source: Brown et al. 2013).
22 significant on each road mile. Using this buffer analysis, it was estimated that the oil and gas industry is having a $1 billion annual impact on secondary roads. Wisconsin Wisconsin DOT reported that it uses a few tools for manag- ing the impact of the sand mining on roads: traffic impact analyses, statutes (specifically, Chapters 348 and 349), and permitting local areas to handle road upgrade maintenance agreements (Hart et al. 2013). The highway commissioner of Chippewa County was able to negotiate on behalf of the county, and the county treated the sand mines as any other traffic-generating enterprise. Baseline condition measure- ments for the roads were taken using FWD, GPR, pavement surface evaluation rating, and Minnesota DOT TONN (a tool that uses FWD deflection data to determine both the Seasonal Load Restriction and to calculate the subgradeâs R-value). The county also projected truck tonnage from issuing min- ing permits and in some areas have mandated that the heavy truck traffic must avoid school bus routes. PRACTICES REPORTED BY FEDERAL AGENCIES Information gathered from online content and through inter- views with staff indicated that there are many federal lands impacted by activities related to energy development. Sev- eral agencies associated with national forest, recreational, or tribal roadways have adopted practices to help adapt to the new transportation needs for the purposes of energy development. United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) website describes the Office of Indian Energy and Economic Development, whose mission is to provide technical advice to tribes in explora- tion and development of nearly 2 million acres of energy and mineral resources. An additional 15 million acres of un- developed lands could hold the potential for further energy and mineral exploration. In addition to oil and minerals, renewable energy development exists with priorities for wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass activities. The website showed that an Office of Indian Services also exists, with a Division of Transportation at the BIA. This division is responsible for approximately 29,500 miles of roadway and 930 bridges that are identified as BIA roads and are included in the National Tribal Transportation Facil- ity Inventory. Under the operation and maintenance of BIA roads, transportation facilities located on Indian reservations and within tribal communities are maintained. It is the policy of the BIA Road Maintenance Program to preserve, repair, and restore the BIA system of roadways and transportation The bill also created a transportation infrastructure fund that consists of eligible federal and state funds, gifts, and grants for funding for transportation projects, including those for county energy transportation reinvestment zones. It granted the Texas DOT the authority to develop policies and procedures to administer a transportation infrastructure grant program to counties located in areas of the state affected by increased oil and gas production. A study by Oh et al. (2013) recommended that agencies enforce the use of triaxial design checks in the current flexible pavement design method, especially for energy-related corri- dors. Nondestructive testing tools such as ground penetrating radar (GPR) and falling weight deflectometer (FWD) were suggested to evaluate existing pavement structural conditions and for early identification of weak or potentially problematic sections. Other suggestions in the study included guidelines for strengthening cross-sectional elements on rural two-lane highways and modifications to include requirements that are tied to the actual ADT traffic range. The study described a need for widening the cross-sections of farm-to-market roads that are subjected to frequent truck traffic, and a need to avoid moisture-susceptible base materials in cross-section widening applications. A paper by Miller et al. (2014) presented various partner- ship approaches between energy companies, county officials, and other organizations. The proactive, performance-based approach aims to strengthen pavements in advance of energy development. The reactive, performance-based approach assesses the impact fees based on the cost of roadway main- tenance after the damage. A third approach imposes impact fees on energy developers that are not attached to actual measured deterioration. A fourth approach considers policy changes at the state level to allow counties to promote trans- portation infrastructure projects affected by energy produc- tion activities. A research project funded by Texas DOT, reported on in Conner et al. (2012), measured the impacts of increased levels of energy-related traffic on infrastructure. Research activities included the creation of a geodatabase of energy develop- ments; assessment of pavement and roadside impacts; opera- tional, safety, and economic impacts; stakeholder meetings; and, strategy recommendations. An ideal pavement assess- ment methodology was reported to consist of four steps: (1) determine the pavement condition/strength, (2) estimate the pavement life consumed by projected heavy vehicle traf- fic, (3) determine pavement replacement cost, and (4) charge the developer for the costs of the increased heavy vehicle traffic. An analysis was conducted that created buffer zones around both existing and permitted future wells within a 5-mile radius. Using these buffers, researchers determined what portion of the highways would be impacted, assuming that roadways outside of the buffer would not be impacted. Because the road network is much less dense in South Texas than in North Texas, the impacts were suggested to be more
23 land resources for a variety of uses, such as energy devel- opment, livestock grazing, recreation, and timber harvest- ing, while protecting a wide array of natural, cultural, and historical resources, many of which are found in the BLMâs 27 million-acre National Landscape Conservation System. The website also showed that the BLM has a source document entitled the Surface Operating Standards and Guidelines for Oil and Gas Exploration and Development, commonly referred to as âThe Gold Bookâ for use by the U.S. Forest Service (USDA-FS) and BLM (Bureau of Land Management 2007). The topics in the guidance document include guidance for filing plans, conducting environmental analysis and on-site inspections, and presentation of best prac- tices; geophysical operations; permitting and approval of lease operations; construction and maintenance (roads and access ways, transportation planning, road design/construction/ maintenance, drainage, pipelines and flow lines); drilling and production operations; reclamation and abandonment; and, appeals. The document was developed to assist energy oper- ators by providing information for them on the requirements for obtaining permit approvals and conducting environmen- tally responsible oil and gas operations on federal lands and on private surface access over federal minerals. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service A review of its website and interviews conducted with staff found that the United States Forest Service (USFS) Engi- neering Division provides engineering technical assistance for the management of about 200 million acres of national forests, lakes, mountains, and prairie lands. The USFS man- ages an extensive road and trail transportation system and provides for the planning, management, maintenance, and capital improvement of 7,500 bridges and 375,000 miles of National Forest System (NFS) roads. Twenty percent of the roads are open without restriction to all vehicle types (includ- ing passenger cars), 58% are open to pickups and other high- clearance vehicles, and 22% are closed. Additionally, the Minerals and Geology Management department manages energy and mineral resources into development, production, and reclamation according to specific authorities, legislation, rules, and regulations. The program is also responsible for authorization of ancillary projects, such as roads and pipe- lines that are part of the energy and minerals development projects. The value of energy and mineral production from NFS lands typically exceeds $2 billion per year. More than 5 million acres of NFS lands are leased for the oil, gas, coal, and phosphate types of energy. Energy industry activities range from oil and gas leases, methane, timber, geothermal, and biomass projects, which require Road Use Permits (RUP), the key regulating per- mit for energy development activities. The RUP template is provided in Appendix B (available at www.trb.org; search facilities in accordance with federal, state, tribal, and local laws, as applicable. The BIA is mandated to maintain roads and transportation facilities constructed with Highway Trust funds. Many of these BIA roads are in failing to fair condition, are not built to an adequate design standard, and have safety deficiencies. In fiscal year 2012, approximately 5,150 miles, or 17%, were considered to be in acceptable condition, based on the BIA Service Level Index condition assessment cri- teria. The 23,850 miles of remaining roads, or 83%, were in unacceptable condition. In an interview with a transportation consultant, represen- tatives of the MHA Nation (Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara Tribes), which comprise the Three Affiliated Tribes (TAT) of North Dakota, described their situation. There are a number of state, local, and tribal roads that were not designed to handle the volume and composition of the energy-related traffic that has increased in recent years, and pavement surface failures were observed to increase the number of reported crashes. The transportation system on the Fort Berthold Reservation, located within the Bakken play where drilling is under way, consists of state-owned paved highways as well as county and tribal unpaved roads. In 1995, the TAT assumed the road maintenance system from the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and since that time the Fort Berthold Reservation has experi- enced unprecedented heavy truck traffic resulting from the oil exploration in northwestern North Dakota. A 2011 Road Safety Audit of the BIA Roads on the reservation, conducted by the FHWA Office of Federal Lands (Indian Reservation Roads) Program, the TAT, North Dakota DOT, FHWA North Dakota Division, and BIA Great Plains Region, revealed poor pavement conditions, inadequate sign maintenance and vis- ibility, and obsolete horizontal and vertical alignments and speed management for the current traffic volumes and com- position (Loegering 2012). A comprehensive list of recom- mendations was compiled to improve safety on these roads. The interview also uncovered that currently the TAT and individual tribal landowners receive lump sum royalty pay- ments through leases with the energy companies. Addition- ally, the TAT have turned over about 100 miles of road for ongoing maintenance and repair through separate mainte- nance agreements with the energy companies. The companies have used chemical stabilizers in the unpaved road surfaces to keep the roads operational. United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management A review of its website found that the Bureau of Land Man- agement (BLM) administers more than 245 million surface acres of public land, which is more than any other federal agency in the United States. Most of this land is located in the 12 western states, including Alaska. The BLM also manages 700 million acres of sub-surface mineral estate throughout the nation. The BLMâs multiple-use mission manages public
24 roads that are deeper than 3 inches) and restore the road- way surface to the USFS road standards. Because many of the operators use the same roads, RUPs can allow the energy companies to pay for the reconstruction directly or allow them to donate equipment or materials for the repair of the roads. If there are impacts to water quality, the Penn- sylvania Department of Environmental Protection may also be involved negotiating fund allocations with the energy companies. Load postings are in effect on ANF roads and bridges dur- ing the thaw period (February through April); otherwise, the state legal load is the standard. However, USFS engineers continually inspect whether the ANF roads and bridges can withstand the loads in unconventional well areas and seek cooperation with the energy developers in controlling their loads on roads with sensitive bridges. A number of effective practices have been used by the USFS in ANF and are sum- marized in Table 8. PRACTICES REPORTED BY TRIBAL NATIONS In interviews with a representative of the Southern Ute Tribal Nation, the significance and importance of the 2006 Ignacio Area Corridor Access Plan was outlined. The plan involves collaboration between the Southern Ute Tribal Nation, La Plata County, the town of Ignacio, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This plan was developed to address the sustained growth resulting from the new Ute Casino, Museum, and Cultural Center, and the energy development activities in the region. One key factor was the gas and oil field devel- opment anticipated with the high probability of significant gas/oil field expansion to the east of the Ignacio. The project team used historic truck traffic growth volumes to determine future traffic impacts on the corridor resulting from new wells planned in the area. The weblink is provided in Appen- dix C for accessing and viewing this plan. NCHRP Synthesis 469). The USFS generally regulates access through RUP and can modify permits to reflect the specific situations. The USFS policy is to bring the roads up to standard before their use by energy developers and to maintain them during use. Reimbursement is through the specific items outlined in the RUP with funds provided to the specific National Forest. In the Grand Mesa Uncompahgre and Gunnison National Forests in Colorado, the USFS has installed 40 traffic coun- ters and has commenced collecting traffic volume statistics. For areas where traffic exceeds the normal range of 150 to 200 vehicles per day, the USFS is considering mitigation measures to reduce the speeds and to increase the strength of the roadway subbase or subgrade. In interviews with staff at the Allegheny National Forest (ANF), it was explained that there are two types of oil and gas development, designated as conventional and uncon- ventional drilling, in the ANF in northwestern Pennsylvania. The conventional drilling consists of shallow vertical wells (ranging from 500- to 2,000-feet depths), an activity which has taken place in the forest since the 19th century and attracts approximately 300 trucks per year to the area. Approximately 60% to 70% of the forest roadway system is being used by conventional energy operators and other multiple operators within the same year. The unconventional deep well extraction is still in the exploratory stage in the ANF but has already attracted about 3,000 trucks per year to the area and is expected to expand more. The majority of the roads in the ANF are unpaved (dirt and gravel), and the emergence of heavy trucks operating to the exploratory sites has significantly accelerated pavement damage, sometimes in a couple of hours. The USFS works with the gas and oil operators to fix major structural damage (e.g., ruts in aggregate-surfaced TABLE 8 PRACTICES USED TO ADDRESS IMPACTS OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT IN ALLEGHENY NATIONAL FOREST Impact of Energy Activity Strategy or Practice to Address Issue Notes on Practice Recovery of funds for maintaining forest road condition Road use permits: initial fee payment followed by an annual fee for hauling brine and oil Fee structure is based on level of activity (charged on per mile basis) and depends on the number of sites Need for improvements at intersection of ANF and state roads Sight distance, brushing, signing, markings, and pavement resurfacing Energy developers must pay or fund through working with Pennsylvania DOT Unpaved roads with ruts holding water or entrenched, resulting in poor condition Use higher quality aggregate in areas with unconventional wells and build to a higher USFS road design standard Some roads have been treated with full depth reclamation (FDR) of pavements to enhance road surfaceâs ability to handle truck loads from unconventional well sites Dust spread from passage of trucks to and from well sites Use of conventional binders, emulsifying oils, or water trucks to wet road surface ANF is a relatively wet forest; thus, dust control has not been a major issue Trucks are too large for the forest roads, which are single lane roads with turnouts Reconstruct roads to a full two-lane highway after conversion to FDR surface is no longer resisting damage Energy company must pay for the upgrade to a two-lane road
