Index
A
Accuracy of prediction, 223-225, 227-228, 278-279, 280
Adolescents. See Youth
and confidence in criminal justice system, 53
and fear of violence, 11-14, 34
and incarceration and sentencing, 51, 309
and perceived seriousness of violent acts, 48
see also Juvenile delinquency;
Older persons;
Youth
Aggression, 235-236
Alarms, 23
Alcohol abuse, 180, 190, 196, 197-198, 280
Altruistic fear, 56-57
American Psychiatric Association, 220, 236
Animal models, 25-26
Antisocial personality disorder, 236, 242, 245
risk of, 311-312, 332-334, 336
Assault, 35, 86, 92, 93, 99, 105, 107, 142, 151n:16, 173-174, 301, 302, 303, 309
perceived seriousness of, 46
Attraction to Sexual Aggression (ASA) Scale, 233
Avoidance behaviors, 20, 21-22, 23-24, 26, 54, 55-56
B
Battered women's centers, 101
Behavior. See Lifestyle; Offenders and criminal behavior
Behavioral science model, 188
Benefit-cost analyses, 71-72, 147
of incarceration policies, 71, 132, 349-354
Black population
confidence in criminal justice system, 53-54
fear of, 18-19
homicides, 168
knowledge of others' victimization, 34, 36
and perceived seriousness of violent acts, 47-48
Bureau of Justice Statistics, 87, 243
Burglary, 18, 20, 30, 35, 36, 177, 300, 303
C
California, 136, 300, 318, 319, 320, 363n:18
Censoring events, 247, 254, 283
Child abuse and neglect, 92, 148, 151n:16, 179, 200-201
classification instruments, 234-235, 242
false accusations of, 139-140
later violent behavior by victims, 81, 122, 180, 201, 238
mental health impacts, 98, 179-180
psychological testing for, 234-235
risk factors, 237
Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory, 234-235
Cities. See Neighborhoods; Urban areas
Citizen patrols and crime-reporting programs, 24
Classification of violent behavior, 217-219, 226-228, 229-247
informal methods, 225-226
research needs, 281-283
types of, 230-245
Clinical predictions, 237
Coefficient alpha, 223
Community treatment facilities, 83
Compensatory value. See Willingness to accept
Conduct disorder, 236
Consequences of violent behavior, 1, 67-69.
See also Costs of violent behavior;
Injuries
Construct validity, 221-222
Consumer product injuries, 89-90
Content validity, 221
Contingent valuation surveys, 85
Corporal punishment, 204
Correctional institutions and inmates, 296-298, 354-358
classification systems, 231-233, 236-237
costs of incarceration, 71-72, 73, 83, 131-134, 136-139
fear of victimization in, 56
offense rates and mix, 307-321
official records, 240-241
overcrowding, 305-307
public opinion on, 49-50
rates of incarceration, 131-132, 315-320
risk and severity of imprisonment, 312-314
Costs of violent behavior, 67-70, 75, 76, 87-89, 91-122, 141-145
comparisons among offenses, 70-71
conceptual framework, 72-79
criminal justice system, 83, 125-135
direct, 72, 79, 79-81, 80, 85, 87, 91-101
emergency response, 101-106
estimation, 69-72, 78-79, 84-87, 189
to family members, 81, 118-121
fixed, average, and marginal, 76-77
imprisonment, 71-72, 73, 83, 131-134, 136-139
injuries, 82, 84-87, 89-91, 91-94, 145-146
literature review, 84-91
medical, 73, 79, 88, 89-94, 145
mental health, 79, 88, 98-99, 114-115, 121, 122, 152n:24-25
nonmonetary, 72, 73-74, 79, 81, 85-86, 87-89, 101, 150n:8
to offenders, 73, 83, 84, 136-139, 141
offsetting benefits, 75-76
overdeterrence, 83-84, 139-140
pain, suffering, and quality of life, 73-74, 81, 88, 89, 90, 112-117
and policy analysis, 71-72
preventive measures, 70, 87, 123-125, 135-136
reduction measures, 77-78
victim assistance, 77-78, 101-103, 104
see also Productivity losses
Courts
Crime. See Criminal justice system; Mass media (for news coverage) ; Nonviolent crime; Offenders and criminal behavior
Crime event/criminal profile data, 241-242
Crime seriousness index, 70
''Crime stoppers" programs, 136
Criminal intent, 58-59, 182-183
Criminal justice system
case processing, 126-129, 130, 131
public confidence in, 49, 53-54
versus public health perspectives, 167-183, 191-210
public opinion, 27-28, 48-54, 59
research activities and researchers, 172, 188-191
sanction policies, 311-321
see also Correctional institutions and inmates
Criminogenic commodities, 170, 190-191, 196-198, 202, 206
Criterion validity, 222
Cross-sectional studies, 219
Cultural influences
and perceived seriousness of crimes, 37
and violence prevention, 171, 203-205, 207, 209-210
Cycle of violence. See Intergenerational violence
D
Dangerous persons, 18-19
Dangerous places, 15-18, 21-22, 24, 55-56
Death penalty, 133-134
Deaths, 81
Dementia, 235
Demographic characteristics
and confidence in criminal justice system, 53-54
and fear of victimization, 11-15, 33-34
and knowledge of others' victimization, 34, 36
and perceived seriousness of violent acts, 47-48, 51
and punishments preferred, 51-52
see also Age;
Employment status;
Females;
Gender differences;
Income level;
Males;
Older persons;
Race and ethnicity;
Youth
Deterrence, 49, 52, 59, 71-72, 73, 168, 182, 183, 194, 321, 336-348, 350-351, 356-357
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III-R), 220, 235-236, 245
Dichotomous dependent variables, 256
Discount rates, 78-79
Discriminate analysis, 256
Disorganized asocial offenders, 241
Dogs, for personal security, 23, 123
Domestic violence, 92, 151n:16, 170, 179, 199, 200-201
mental health impacts, 179-180
see also Child abuse and neglect;
Spousal abuse
Downtown areas, 16
Dramatization of crime, 31-32, 204
Driving while intoxicated, 58, 197-198
Drug abuse, 180, 190, 196-197, 228, 235-236, 240-241, 262, 280, 285-286n:12
Drug offenses, 45, 302, 303, 320, 359n:6
dealers, 86, 87, 150n:10, 228-229, 243
Durkheim, Emile, 26-27
E
Early release programs, 72, 307, 320-321, 328
Economics. See Costs of violent behavior
Educational level, and sentencing, 51
Elderly. See Older persons
Electronic monitoring of offenders, 71
Emergency medical treatment, 89
Employer costs of injuries, 107
Employment status
prior to offense, 136-137
and victimization risk, 86
Engraving of valuables, 21, 23
Entertainment, crime as, 31-32, 204
Environmental influences, 184-188
fear reactions, 4, 5, 15-19, 57-58
and violence prevention, 201-203
Epidemiological studies, 168-169, 183-188, 243-244
Expressive violence, 186
Extortion, 178
F
Failure-time models, 247, 268-272, 282
False imprisonment, 138, 139-140
Family members
of offenders, 138
quality of life costs, 118-121
see also Child abuse and neglect;
Domestic violence;
Spousal abuse
Fear of victimization, 2, 3-28, 167
biological bases, 25-26
community responses, 24-25, 26-28
conceptual issues, 3-5
consequences of, 20-24, 26-27, 177-178
and cues to danger, 4, 5, 15-19, 57-58
and knowledge of others' victimization, 36
lifestyle changes, 26, 83, 124-125
for loved ones, 56-57
measurement of, 5-6
offense-specific, 7-11
physiological indicators, 3, 5-6
and prior victimization, 19-20, 54-55, 96
research needs, 54-57
sociological impacts, 26-27
see also Public opinion and perception
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
crime statistics, 7, 31, 92, 117, 243
offender typologies, 241-242
Females
and fear of violence, 11-14, 18
mental health impacts of victimization, 96, 98
risk reduction measures, 23-24
see also Gender differences;
Rape
Fictional crime, 31-32
Fines, 137
Firearms. See Weapons
Florida, 300, 302, 303-305, 319, 320
Folk theories. See Ethnopenologies
Frontier justice, 27-28
G
Gangs, 178
and perceived seriousness of violent acts, 48
risk reduction measures, 23-24
and sentencing, 51
General Social Survey (GSS), 2, 6, 7, 23, 36, 53
Goetz, Bernard, 28
Gresham's Law, 31
Guns. See Weapons
H
"Habilitation" programs, 135
Health consequences. See Injuries
Health insurance, 79, 109-110, 145, 153n:30-31
Hedonic pricing models, 85-86, 87
Home detention, 134
Homicide, 86, 138-139, 168, 173, 266, 303, 309, 320
interpersonal diffusion of knowledge of, 35-36
news coverage, 30
perceived seriousness of, 38
in television dramas, 32
Household characteristics, 55
Household duties, loss of, 79, 81, 88, 107-108, 118, 153n:28-29
"Human capital" valuation, 74
I
Imprisonment. See Correctional institutions and inmates
Incapacitation of offenders, 49, 52, 71-72, 73, 75-76, 168, 182, 183, 194, 321-336, 341, 344, 346, 349-354, 356-357
Incest, 98
Incidence-based cost estimates, 78-79
Income level
of incarcerated offenders, 137
and knowledge of others' victimization, 36
and victimization risk, 86
Income transfer programs, 110
Index crime rate, 308-309, 360n:8-9
Index of Spouse Abuse, 231
Indigent defense, 83, 129, 131
Information sources, on violence, 1, 2, 28-38, 57-58.
See also Mass media
Injuries, 167-168, 173, 175-176
costs, 82, 84-87, 89-91, 91-94, 145-146
see also Mental health injuries;
Risk of injury and victimization
Innocent parties, 84
Instrumental violence, 186
Insurance, 21, 23, 109-111, 145-146, 153n:30-31
Intergenerational violence, 122, 180
Internal consistency, 223
Interpersonal diffusion of crime news, 34-36, 57
Interrater reliability, 223
J
Jury awards, 85, 86, 88, 89, 98, 114, 115-116, 119
Jury Verdict Research, Inc., 111, 114-115
Juvenile delinquency
arrest records, 238-239
referrals to court, 239
sentencing, 51
K
Kuder-Richardson formula (KR20), 223
L
Laboratory studies, 244
Lambda. See Rate of commission
Late luteal phase dysphoric disorder, 236
Law. See Criminal justice system; Torts
Longitudinal studies, 219, 244
fear of victimization, 54-55
perceived seriousness of violent acts, 58
Losses. See Costs of violent behavior
M
Males
in crime dramas, 32
homicides, 168
mental health impacts of victimization, 96
risk reduction measures, 24
see also Gender differences
of incarceration, 73
and community programs, 25
crime as entertainment, 31-32, 204
crime as filler material, 31
criticisms of crime news coverage, 29-31
Mass murderers, 241-242
Media General/Associated Press survey, 53
Medical costs, 73, 79, 88, 89-94, 145
Mental health injuries, 94-99, 167, 181
costs, 79, 88, 98-99, 114-115, 121, 122, 152n:24-25
to family members, 119-121
to witnesses, 121-122
Mental retardation, 236
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 231-233, 284n:2
"Mirror image" model, 30-31, 33
Moral judgments, 167, 191, 204-205.
See also Normative evaluations
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), 58
Multiple personality disorder, 98
Multiplicative model of fear, 8-9
Multivariate scaling techniques, 231-235, 246
Murder. See Homicide
N
National Accident Sampling System (NASS), 93
National Council on Compensation Insurance (NCCI) data base, 93-94, 151-152n:19
National Crime Survey (NCS), 7, 23, 26, 57, 87, 88, 92-93, 95, 127-129, 148, 150-151n:14-17, 311-312
National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS), 93
National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), 93
National Hospital Discharge Survey (NHDS), 93
National Survey of Crime Severity, 38-48
National Survey of Punishment for Criminal Offenses, 50
and conversations about crime, 34
Neighborhood watch programs, 24-25, 27, 136
News coverage. See Mass media
Nicotine withdrawal, 236
Nonviolent crime
interpersonal diffusion of knowledge of, 35-36
news coverage, 30-31
perceived seriousness of, 38, 46
and potential for violence, 176-178, 180-181
Normative evaluations, 49-51, 58
O
Observational studies, 244-245
Occurrence models, 247, 257, 258-268, 282
Offenders and criminal behavior, 174-175, 182-183
career lengths, 328-332, 351, 357
characteristics of, 48-49, 51-52, 228-229, 245
classification of, 217-219, 226-228, 229-247
costs to, 73, 83, 84, 136-139, 141
defendant records, 239-240
disorganized asocial, 241
FBI typology, 239-240
former victims, 122
organized asocial, 241
prediction of, 217, 218-220, 247-281, 284n:2
relationship to victim, 46-47
victimization of, 56, 75-76, 86-87
see also Correctional institutions and inmates;
Criminal intent;
Criminal justice system;
Juvenile delinquency;
Recidivism and recidivists
Official record data, 238-242, 246, 280
Older persons
and fear of violence, 11-14, 22
mental health impacts of victimization, 96
and perceived seriousness of violent acts, 48
risk reduction measures, 23
sentencing of, 51
Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression, 256
Organic personality syndrome, 235
P
Pain and suffering, 73-74, 81, 88, 89, 90, 99, 112-116, 114, 116
Paranoia, 242
Parole, 133
Pennsylvania, 51, 300, 302, 318-319, 320, 365n:21
Perceptions of violence. See Fear of victimization; Public opinion and perception
Persistence of violence, 218, 228, 245-246
Philadelphia, Pa., 15-16, 17, 22
Police
community relations, 24
confidence in, 23, 27-28, 49, 53-54
costs, 73, 83, 103-105, 126, 147
preventive patrols, 71
Policy. See Public policy
Postdiction studies, 219-220
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 94-97, 120-121, 236
Predatory behavior, 284n:2
Prediction of violent behavior, 217, 218-220, 247-281, 284n:2
accuracy, 223-225, 227-228, 278-279, 280
methodological problems, 222, 224-228, 247, 254-257
research needs, 281-283
review of studies, 248-254, 257-278
President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration, 3
Pretrial detention, 126
Prevalence-based cost estimates, 78, 149n:6
Preventive and precautionary measures, 192-193
costs, 70, 87, 123-125, 135-136
criminal justice approaches, 194-200
juvenile delinquency, 195-196
personal strategies, 20-21, 22-24, 25-26, 54, 55, 72-73, 123-125
public health approaches, 169, 200-205, 206-207
timing of, 186-187
see also Deterrence
Primary prevention, 193
Prisons. See Correctional institutions and inmates
Probation, 71, 83, 131, 133, 134, 138
Productivity losses, 73, 74, 79, 83, 90, 98, 106-109, 108-109, 135
of incarcerated offenders, 136-137
Property losses, 73, 79, 88-89, 99, 149-150n:7
Property-marking projects, 24, 25
Psychiatric classifications, 235-236
Psychological injury. See Mental health injuries
Psychological tests, 230-235
Public defenders, 83, 129, 131
Public health system, 168
and epidemiological analyses, 168-169, 183-188
operational resources, 207-209
Public opinion and perception, 1-3
of criminal justice system, 27-28, 48-54, 59
effects of victim, offender, and respondent characteristics, 51-52
seriousness of violent acts, 37-48, 58-59
see also Fear of victimization
Public policy
and cost analyses, 69-70, 71-72, 147
criminal justice and public health dichotomy, 192-207
and incarceration, 349-354
and seriousness of violent acts, 37
and violence classification and prediction, 279, 283-284
Public service announcements, 83
Punishment. See Criminal justice system; Deterrence; Incapacitation of offenders; Rehabilitation of offenders; Retributive justice; Sentences to prison
Q
Quality of life, 73, 81, 90, 112-113, 116-117, 118-121
R
and confidence in criminal justice system, 53-54
and juvenile arrests, 238
and knowledge of others' victimization, 36
and perceived seriousness of violent acts, 47-48
and sentencing, 51
Rage, classification of, 235-236
"Ransom" value. See Willingness to pay
Rape, 35, 92, 93, 94, 99, 101, 105, 107, 142, 266, 286n:14, 301-302 , 304, 309
fear of, 14
mental health impacts, 95-98, 179
perceived seriousness of, 38, 45, 46-47, 58
and sadism, 236
Rapid assessments, 230-231
Rap sheets. See Official record data
Rate models, 247, 272-278, 282
Rate of commission, 218, 228, 245-246, 322-328, 350-351
Reactive approaches, 192-193
Recidivism and recidivists, 72, 83, 138, 174-175, 191, 241, 364-365 n:19
career termination, 328-330
drug abusers, 241
sentencing of, 51
Regression analysis, 256-257
Rehabilitation of offenders, 49, 52, 72, 135, 168, 182-183, 194
Relative Improvement Over Chance (RIOC) statistic, 225, 278-279, 283
Repeat offenders. See Recidivism and recidivists
Research activities and needs, 219-220, 281-283
costs and consequences, 99, 146-148
criminal justice system, 172, 188-191
prediction, 217, 218-220, 247-283, 284n:2
quality measures, 221-225, 279-280
Restitution, 49
Retail businesses, 55-56
Retributive justice, 49, 52, 167, 204
Risk of injury and victimization, 11-12, 177
to inmates, 138
public health approaches, 169, 171, 183-184, 187, 202, 203
Robbery, 21, 34, 35, 45, 92, 93, 99, 105, 107, 142, 177, 300, 303, 309, 320, 359n:6
mental health impacts, 95, 96, 98
S
Sadism, 236
Safe School Study, 17
Samples. See Selection bias; Surveys
Schools, 17
Secondary prevention, 193
Security systems and devices, 21, 22-23, 25, 56, 83, 125
Selection bias, 226-227, 247, 255, 283
Self-destructive behavior, 245
Self-reports, offender, 240, 242-245, 246, 280.
See also Surveys
Sentences to prison, 50-51, 59, 173, 296, 312-314, 318-319, 320, 337, 349
costs and benefits, 71, 132, 349-354
Serial killings, 191, 241, 242
Seriousness of violent acts, 218
as determinant of fear, 8-9, 10, 37
and interpersonal diffusion of crime news, 35-36
and news reporting, 30-31
and punishment, public preferences for, 37, 49-50
"Seven-stitch rule," 173-174
See. See Females; Gender differences; Males
Sexual violence
psychological testing for, 233, 244
public health perspectives, 178-180
sadism, 236
tort actions, 111
see also Rape
Shock incarceration programs, 71
Shrinkage, 227-228
Situational analyses and approaches, 170-171, 189, 198-200
Social institutions, public confidence in, 27-28
Sociological analysis, 188-191
later violent behavior by victims, 122
misdemeanor arrest programs, 71
perceived seriousness of, 46, 47
psychological testing for, 231
Standard psychological tests, 231-235
States victim aid funding, 102-103
State-Trait Anger Scale, 230-231
Statistical limitations, of predictive models, 256-257, 282
Stepwise regression, 227, 256-257
Stochastic selectivity, 355-357
Stuart, Carol, murder case, 67-68
Supported Work experiment, 71
Surveys, 188
interpersonal diffusion of crime news, 34-36
of medical costs, 93
offender self-reports, 240, 242-246, 280
of preferred punishments, 49-51
see also National Crime Survey
T
Tay-Sachs disease, 224, 285n:6
Teacher observation studies, 244-245
Teenagers. See Youth
Television, 28-29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 204
Tertiary prevention, 193
Test-retest reliability, 219, 223
See also Burglary;
Robbery
U
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), 7, 92, 117, 127-129, 189, 243, 360-361 n:11
V
Validity of research, 221-222, 279-280
Vandalism, 35
Victim assistance programs, 77-78, 101-103, 104
Victimization
careers, 55
offsetting benefits of, 75
personal knowledge of others', 34-36
See also Fear of victimization
characteristics and public opinion, 47, 51-52
later violent behavior by, 122
prior criminal behavior of, 86
ratings of seriousness of violent acts, 48
relationship to offender, 46-47
Victims of Crime Act (VOCA), 101-102
Vigilantism, 27-28
W
Wealth effect, 149n:4
Weapons, 190-191, 196, 198, 202-203
injuries, 150n:13
for personal security, 21, 22, 23, 83, 123, 190
Willingness to accept (WTA), 74, 85-86, 113, 149n:4
Willingness to pay (WTP), 74, 85-87, 112-113, 116-117, 159n:4
Witnesses, 120, 121-122, 134, 135, 174
Y
Youth
homicides, 168
violence prevention programs, 201
see also Juvenile delinquency