National Academies Press: OpenBook
Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals

Current Knowledge and Research Needs

Committee on Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals Ocean Studies Board

Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources National Research Council

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
1994

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competence and with regard for appropriate balance.

This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.

Support for this project was provided by the U.S. Office of Naval Research Contract No. N00014-92-J-1560/R.

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 93-61700

International Standard Book Number 0-309-05025-1

Additional copies of this report are available from:

National Academy Press
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Copyright 1994 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

Cover art by Ellen Hill-Godfrey. Ms. Hill-Godfrey received her Master of Fine Arts degree from the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. Her paintings and prints have been exhibited in the Washington, DC, area and throughout the Mid-Atlantic and Southern regions. She has done illustrations for the University of Georgia Press and the University of North Carolina's Endeavors magazine. She lives in Germantown, MD, and teaches at The Barnesville School.

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

COMMITTEE ON LOW-FREQUENCY SOUND AND MARINE MAMMALS

David M. Green,

University of Florida,

Chairman

Harry A. DeFerrari,

University of Miami

Dennis McFadden,

University of Texas

John S. Pearse,

University of California at Santa Cruz

Arthur N. Popper,

University of Maryland

W. John Richardson,

LGL Ltd., King City, Ont., Canada

Sam H. Ridgway,

Naval Ocean Systems Center at San Diego

Peter L.Tyack,

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Staff

Mary Hope Katsouros, Director

Robin Peuser, Project Officer

LaVoncyé Mallory, Senior Secretary

Curtis Taylor, Office Assistant

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

OCEAN STUDIES BOARD

William Merrell,

Texas A&M University,

Chairman

Robert A. Berner,

Yale University

Donald F. Boesch,

University of Maryland

Kenneth Brink,

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Gerald Cann, Independent Consultant

Robert Cannon,

Stanford University

Biliana Cicin-Sain,

University of Delaware

William Curry,

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Rana Fine,

University of Miami

John E. Flipse,

Texas A&M University

Michael Freilich,

Oregon State University

Gordon Greve,

Amoco Production Company

Robert Knox,

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Arthur R. M. Nowell,

University of Washington

Peter Rhines,

University of Washington

Frank Richter,

University of Chicago

Brian Rothschild,

University of Maryland

Thomas Royer,

University of Alaska

Lynda Shapiro,

Oregon State University

Sharon Smith,

University of Miami

Paul Stoffa,

University of Texas

Liaison Member

John Orcutt, Chairman,

Navy Committee, Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Staff

Mary Hope Katsouros, Director

Edward R. Urban, Jr., Staff Officer

Robin Peuser, Research Associate

David Wilmot, Research Associate

Mary Pechacek, Administrative Associate

LaVoncyé Mallory, Senior Secretary

Curtis Taylor, Office Assistant

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES

M. Gordon Wolman,

The Johns Hopkins University,

Chairman

Patrick R. Atkins,

Aluminum Company of America

Peter S. Eagleson,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Edward A. Frieman,

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

W. Barclay Kamb,

California Institute of Technology

Jack E. Oliver,

Cornell University

Frank L. Parker,

Vanderbilt University

Raymond A. Price,

Queen's University at Kingston

Thomas C. Schelling,

University of Maryland

Larry L. Smarr,

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Steven M. Stanley,

The Johns Hopkins University

Victoria J. Tschinkel,

Landers and Parsons

Warren Washington,

National Center for Atmospheric Research

Edith Brown Weiss,

Georgetown University Law Center

Staff

Stephen Rattien, Executive Director

Stephen D. Parker, Associate Executive Director

Morgan Gopnik, Assistant Executive Director

Jeanette Spoon, Administrative Officer

Sandi Fitzpatrick, Administrative Associate

Robin L. Allen, Senior Project Assistant

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Robert M. White is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is the president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Robert M. White are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

Preface

By passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972, the United States acknowledged through public policy that marine mammals are a valuable national resource to be protected. Various human activities affect marine mammals and such activities are being discussed as part of the national debate during the reauthorization of the MMPA. A crucial element in the debate is the conflicting demands of protecting and conserving marine mammals versus allowing human activities that are considered important to the nation but that might affect marine mammals.

In particular, the issue of whether and how low-frequency sound might affect marine mammals has escalated to national attention because of a proposal to repeatedly measure the speed of sound in the ocean over time to determine if the ocean and the global atmosphere are warming. The Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate (ATOC) project proposes to use low-frequency sound along long-distance undersea paths. This is an important issue because ocean scientists employ low-frequency sound in: geophysics research, to determine the structure of the ocean sediment and crust; ocean acoustic tomography, to study three dimensional structure of the water column over distances from 100-1000 kin; ocean acoustics, to study the acoustical properties of the ocean such as propagation in ocean waves and reflections from the surface and bottom of the sea; and biological oceanography,

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

to study marine organisms such as populations in the deep scattering layers.

In 1992, the National Research Council (NRC) established a Committee on Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals under the auspices of the NRC Ocean Studies Board. The committee was chaired by Dr. David M. Green and included a range of expertise: marine mammal behavior and vocalizations, marine mammal physiology, marine mammal bioacoustics, fish bioacoustics, marine ecology, underwater acoustics, and human hearing.

This report is comprehensive and timely, contributing important information relevant to the current debate about the potential effects of low-frequency sound on marine mammals. As the public discussion intensifies, this report serves as an objective review of the current state of knowledge on this subject, recommends changes in the regulatory process to improve acquisition of scientific knowledge (not just about marine mammals but also about the ocean and Earth), and also proposes experiments that should provide the needed information to evaluate the effects of intense low-frequency sounds on a variety of marine mammals and their major prey.

WILLIAM J. MERRELL

CHAIRMAN, OCEAN STUDIES BOARD

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×

Acknowledgments

The committee would like to acknowledge the contributions to the development of this report by several individuals who provided background information, including presentations to the committee, and who participated in several discussions on the topic of the effects of low-frequency sound and marine mammals. The committee would like to express its gratitude to Dr. Whitlow Au, Dr. Aleta Hohn, Dr. Joal Newcomb, Dr. Robert Hofman, Dr. Greg Silber, Dr. Dan Costa, Ms. Carol Fairfield, Dr. Melbourne Briscoe, Dr. Steven Swartz, Dr. Darlene Ketten, Mr. Charles Malme, Dr. Alan Berman, and Mr. Donald Baur for their valuable contributions. In addition, the committee would like to thank Mr. William Schevill, Dr. William Watkins, Ms. Nina Young, and Mr. Bruce McKay for their willingness to meet and discuss this topic with the committee.

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×
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Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
×
   

Magnitude of Potential Noise Pollution from Oceanic Acoustics Studies

 

33

   

Proposed Changes in the Regulatory Structure

 

35

   

Using a New Mechanism to Regulate Scientific "Takes,"

 

35

   

Utilization of the IACUC System

 

36

   

Streamlining Existing Regulations

 

36

   

Summary of Recommended Changes

 

38

   

References

 

39

3

 

Topics for Future Research

 

40

   

Behavior of Marine Mammals in the Wild

 

41

   

Natural, Ecologically Important Signals

 

42

   

Habituation to Repeated Human-made Sounds

 

43

   

Differential Responses of Migrating Whales to Various Human-made Sounds

 

45

   

Responses of Deep-diving Marine Mammals to Low-frequency Sounds

 

46

   

Structure and Function of the Auditory System

 

47

   

Basic Studies of Audiometry

 

47

   

Measurements on Ensnared or Beached Marine Mammals

 

48

   

Replication of Data

 

50

   

Temporary Threshold Shift

 

50

   

Basic Studies of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Auditory System

 

52

   

Effects of Low-Frequency Sounds on the Food Chain

 

53

   

Development and Application of Measurement Techniques

 

54

   

Tag Development

 

54

   

Integrated Undersea Surveillance System (IUSS)

 

56

   

SWAT Team for Studying Hearing by Ensnared or Beached Animals

 

57

   

Warning Signals

 

57

   

References

 

58

 

 

Appendixes

 

 

A

 

Comparison of Sound-Pressure Reference Levels in Air and Water

 

63

B

 

An Introduction to Marine Mammals

 

65

C

 

Comparison of Yearly Sound Energy from Oceanographic Research and Supertankers

 

74

Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
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List of Figures and Tables

Figures

Figure 1.

 

Ambient noise spectra

 

11

Figure 2.

 

Underwater audiograms of selected toothed whales (A) and pinnipeds (B)

 

15

Tables

Table A-1.

 

Typical Airborne Sounds and Some Sound Levels of Marine Mammals

 

64

Table B-1.

 

Classification of the Living Mammals of the Order Cetacea

 

67

Table B-2.

 

Marine Mammals (Pinnipeds, Otters, Polar Bears) of the Order Carnivora

 

71

Table B-3.

 

Living and Recent Members of the Totally Aquatic Order Sirenia (Sea Cows)

 

72

Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
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Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
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Suggested Citation:"FRONT MATTER." National Research Council. 1994. Low-Frequency Sound and Marine Mammals: Current Knowledge and Research Needs. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/4557.
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This volume reviews the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of low-frequency sound on marine mammals and makes recommendations for research. In addition, the book describes current federal regulations prescribed under the Marine Mammal Protection Act that govern the taking of marine mammals by scientific research activities, and it recommends changes to expedite the regulatory process dealing with scientific research activities.

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