Appendix J Human Immunodeficiency Virus Antibody Testing Among Women 15–44: Results from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth
Maria Hewitt
National estimates of the use of HIV tests among women of reproductive-age are available from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS, 1997). As part of this survey, 10,847 women were interviewed in their homes from January to October 1995. The survey response rate was 79%. Interviews lasted an average of 103 minutes and covered the following topics: pregnancy and birth history, marriage and cohabitation history, sexual partner history, contraceptive use, diseases related to fertility (e.g., pelvic inflammatory disease, sexually transmitted diseases [STDs]), HIV-related behaviors, and use of HIV tests. To ensure the confidentiality of responses to potentially sensitive questions, a small part of the interview was self-administered. Women listened over headphones to questions on topics such as abortion, sex partner history, and HIV-related behaviors and entered answers directly into laptop computers. This technique, called audio-CASI (computer-assisted self-interviewing), improves reporting of sensitive behaviors (NCHS, 1997).
The tables that follow show HIV test use among women of childbearing age by selected sociodemographic characteristics, pregnancy status, and HIV risk status. HIV test use is shown for women who were pregnant at the time of the interview, had completed a pregnancy in the last year, or had received pre- or postnatal care within the last year (1,472 women representing 13% of the population were pregnant, or recently pregnant using these criteria; these women are referred to as "pregnant" in the tables).
HIV test use is also shown by HIV risk status. A total of 691 women representing an estimated 6% of the population report specific risk behaviors (e.g., injection drug use or sex with an injection drug user), or a moderate to high self-perceived
risk of being HIV-infected themselves or of having had sex with someone infected with HIV.
HIV test use is shown in three ways: (1) "all HIV tests" includes self-reported HIV tests and any mentions of blood donation since 1985; (2) "any self-reported HIV test" excludes mentions of blood donation when the respondent does not specifically report having had an HIV test; and (3) "HIV test in last 12 months" is limited to self-reported HIV testing.
All rates and population counts are weighted to provide national estimates. Variance estimates for these HIV test use rates and logistic regression model parameters were calculated using the Taylor series method taking into account the complex design of the survey (STATA statistical software).
Preliminary Findings
Self-Reported HIV Test Use Among Reproductive-Age Women
- From 1990 to 1995, self-reported HIV test use increased from 26% to 35% among reproductive-age women (Table J.1).
- In 1995, pregnant women were almost twice as likely as non-pregnant women to have been tested for HIV (60% versus 31%) (Table J.2).
- Women at high-risk for HIV are almost twice as likely as those at low risk to have been tested for HIV (64% versus 33%). Similarly, there are high rates of HIV testing among women reporting at least one STD in their lifetime (53%) and women reporting six or more lifetime sex partners (49%) (Table J.3).
- Nearly nine of ten pregnant women (87%) at high risk for HIV report having been tested for HIV. HIV testing occurred within the year for two-thirds of high-risk pregnant women (67%) (Table J.4).
Location of Self-Reported HIV Tests
- The most common sites of HIV testing among reproductive-age women are private doctor's offices or heath maintenance organizations (HMOs) (46%), public health department or other clinics (27%), and hospitals (16%). Teenagers, those with lower educational attainment, and the poor are more likely to use public health department and other clinics than private doctor's offices or HMOs (Table J.5).
- Pregnant women are more likely than non-pregnant women to have been tested in the last 12 months at a doctor's office or HMO (62% versus 48%) (Table J.8).
TABLE J.1 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age and Percent Ever Tested for HIV, by Source of Test Information and Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1990 and 1995a
|
|
|
Percent Ever Tested |
|||
|
Number of Women (thousands) |
Self-Reported Testsb (standard error) |
All Testsc (standard error) |
|||
Characteristic |
1990 |
1995 |
1990 |
1995 |
1990 |
1995 |
All womend |
58,381 |
60,201 |
25.6 |
34.7 (0.6) |
34.9 |
47.9 (0.6) |
Race and ethnicity |
||||||
Hispanic |
5,547 |
6,703 |
23.8 |
38.9 (1.8) |
29.8 |
46.6 (1.5) |
Black, not Hispanic |
7,526 |
8,210 |
28.5 |
45.5 (1.3) |
34.8 |
50.8 (1.4) |
White, not Hispanic |
42,836 |
42,521 |
25.4 |
32.2 (0.7) |
35.8 |
48.1 (0.7) |
Education |
||||||
Less than 12 years |
5,618 |
15,151 |
24.6 |
29.9 (1.2) |
31.0 |
36.1 (1.2) |
12 years |
17,247 |
19,987 |
23.1 |
35.1 (0.9) |
31.3 |
47.5 (1.0) |
13 years or more |
27,033 |
24,763 |
28.6 |
37.3 (0.9) |
39.9 |
55.6 (0.86) |
Marital status |
||||||
Never married |
20,123 |
22,679 |
26.0 |
31.1 (0.9) |
35.7 |
44.2 (0.9) |
Married |
31,417 |
29,673 |
23.6 |
34.2 (0.8) |
32.5 |
48.4 (0.8) |
Formerly married |
6,841 |
7,849 |
33.5 |
46.9 (1.3) |
43.4 |
56.8 (1.3) |
TABLE J.2 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age by Pregnancy Status, and Percent Tested for HIV, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995a
|
Number of Women (thousands) |
HIV Test Last 12 Months (percent/standard error) |
Any Self-Reported Testsb (percent/standard error) |
|||
Characteristic |
Pregnant |
Not Pregnant |
Pregnant |
Not Pregnant |
Pregnant |
Not Pregnant |
All womenc |
7,789 |
52,141 |
41.9 (1.4) |
13.7 (0.4) |
59.9 (1.5) |
30.9 (0.6) |
Race and ethnicity |
||||||
Hispanic |
1,245 |
5,448 |
47.4 (4.2) |
16.1 (1.2) |
60.3 (4.1) |
33.9 (1.8) |
Black, not Hispanic |
1,166 |
7,032 |
55.5 (3.1) |
24.3 (1.2) |
71.4 (2.7) |
41.2 (1.4) |
White, not Hispanic |
5,020 |
37,268 |
37.8 (1.8) |
11.5 (0.5) |
57.5 (2.1) |
28.7 (0.7) |
Education |
||||||
Less than 12 years |
2,025 |
13,081 |
54.5 (3.0) |
13.0 (0.7) |
69.2 (2.8) |
23.8 (1.0) |
12 years |
2,655 |
17,250 |
42.1 (2.3) |
14.0 (0.7) |
59.4 (2.8) |
31.3 (0.9) |
13 years or more |
3,075 |
21,545 |
33.6 (2.0) |
13.8 (0.6) |
54.2 (2.2) |
34.9 (0.9) |
Marital status |
||||||
Never married |
2,039 |
20,593 |
51.3 (2.8) |
15.7 (0.7) |
65.4 (2.8) |
27.7 (0.9) |
Married |
5,024 |
24,457 |
36.1 (1.8) |
10.2 (0.6) |
55.2 (1.8) |
29.8 (0.8) |
Formerly married |
726 |
7,092 |
55.8 (4.9) |
19.8 (1.1) |
77.1 (3.9) |
43.8 (1.3) |
Age |
||||||
15–19 |
957 |
7,953 |
55.3 (4.0) |
9.9 (0.9) |
68.7 (4.2) |
15.2 (1.1) |
20–24 |
1,813 |
7,086 |
45.3 (3.1) |
18.6 (1.2) |
61.2 (3.2) |
34.9 (1.5) |
25–29 |
2,293 |
7,443 |
39.8 (2.9) |
18.7 (1.2) |
58.1 (2.8) |
40.4 (1.6) |
TABLE J.3 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Reporting AIDS Risk Behaviors, and Percent Ever Tested for HIV: United States, 1995
|
|
Percent Ever Tested |
|
Characteristic |
Number of Women (thousands) |
Any Self-Reported Testa (standard error) |
All Testsb (standard error) |
All women |
60,201 |
34.7 (0.6) |
47.9 (0.6) |
HIV risk |
|||
Moderate/high HIV riskc |
3,672 |
63.9 (2.0) |
68.5 (1.8) |
Low HIV risk |
56,528 |
32.8 (0.6) |
46.6 (0.6) |
STD history |
|||
At least one STD reported in lifetimed |
6,218 |
53.2 (1.8) |
66.2 (1.7) |
No STD in lifetime |
53,983 |
32.6 (0.7) |
45.8 (0.6) |
Number of sexual partners in lifetime |
|||
None |
6,196 |
6.8 (0.8) |
20.0 (1.6) |
One |
13,838 |
25.3 (1.0) |
39.1 (1.1) |
Two–five |
22,655 |
37.5 (0.9) |
50.6 (1.0) |
Six–more |
16,209 |
48.9 (1.0) |
62.2 (1.0) |
a Includes only tests reported in response to the question: "Have you ever had your blood tested for infection with the AIDS virus?" b Category includes all tests for HIV infection, including those done in connection with blood donation (i.e., all reporting a blood donation since March 1985). c Women reported whether they had a high, moderate, low, or no chance of being currently HIV-infected and whether they had a high, moderate, low, or no chance of having had sex with someone HIV-infected. Anyone indicating "high" or "moderate" on either question was categorized as at HIV-risk. In addition, during the audio-CASI portion of the interview, women reported whether they injected drugs in the last year, shared needles in the last year, or had a sex partner in the last year who had male partners, injected drugs, or shared needles. Any respondents answering yes to these questions were also categorized as at-risk. Using these criteria, 6% of women were categorized as at-risk (i.e., either self-identified as at-risk or reporting risk behaviors). d Includes mention of gonorrhea, chlamydia, syphilis, genital warts, and genital herpes. |
Reason for Self-Reported HIV Tests
- The most common reason for HIV testing among reproductive-age women is "just to find out" (36%), as part of prenatal or pregnancy care (25%), and for a hospital procedure, referral by a doctor or other health provider contact (16%) (Table J.6).
- Two-thirds of pregnant women (67%) cite pregnancy as the reason for HIV tests performed within the last 12 months (Table J.8).
Source of Referral for Self-Reported HIV Tests
- When asked whose idea it was to get tested, 42% of reproductive-age women report a doctor or other health care provider, 39% report self, and 7% report an insurer (Table J.7).
- Pregnant women are more than twice as likely as non-pregnant women to report that they were recently tested for HIV upon the recommendation of a health care provider (70% versus 30%) (Table J.8).
Factors Contributing to Test Use among Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Women
- According to multivariate analyses, different factors are predictive of HIV test use for pregnant and non-pregnant women. Among women who are not pregnant, being at HIV risk, African American, poor, living in a metropolitan area, being age 20–39, highly educated, and having been formerly married increase HIV test use. Decreased HIV test use occurs among teenagers and residents of the Northeast and Midwest. Being at HIV risk triples the odds of HIV test use among non-pregnant women (Table J.9).
- Among pregnant women, many of the sociodemographic predictors of HIV testing observed among non-pregnant women lose significance (i.e., age, race, poverty, and metropolitan area residence). This suggests that pregnancy is serving as a triggering event for testing, irrespective of the woman's characteristics. The role of education is reversed for pregnant women. Here, lower educational attainment is predictive of HIV testing. Different geographic patterns emerge for pregnant women, with residents of the South more likely to be tested than residents of other areas. Being at HIV risk quadruples the odds of HIV testing among pregnant women (Table J.9).
References
National Center for Health Statistics. Report of final mortality statics, 1995. Monthly Vital Statistics Report 1997; 45(11:Suppl 2).
Wilson JB. Human immunodeficiency virus antibody testing in women 15–44 years of age: United States, 1990. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics. Number 238, Hyattsville, Md.: National Center for Health Statistics, 1993.
TABLE J.4 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age by Pregnancy Status and Percent Tested for HIV by Selected Measures of HIV Risk: United States, 1995a
|
Number of Women (thousands) |
HIV Test Last 12 Months (percent/standard error) |
Any Self-Reported Testb (percent/standard error) |
|||
Characteristic |
Pregnant |
Not Pregnant |
Pregnant |
Not Pregnant |
Pregnant |
Not Pregnant |
All women |
7,789 |
52,141 |
41.9 (1.4) |
13.7 (0.4) |
59.9 (1.5) |
30.9 (0.6) |
HIV risk |
||||||
Report HIV-riskc |
595 |
3,064 |
66.7 (4.5) |
32.3 (2.4) |
87.2 (3.6) |
59.3 (2.3) |
No report of HIV risk |
7,194 |
49,078 |
39.9 (1.5) |
12.5 (0.4) |
57.6 (1.6) |
29.1 (0.6) |
STD history |
||||||
At least 1 STD reported in lifetimed |
1,022 |
5,162 |
44.3 (4.4) |
21.1 (1.5) |
69.3 (3.9) |
50.0 (2.0) |
No STD in lifetime |
6,767 |
46,979 |
41.6 (1.5) |
12.9 (0.5) |
58.5 (1.5) |
28.8 (0.7) |
TABLE J.5 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Self-Reporting Test for HIV and Percent Tested at Specific Locations for Most Recent Test, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995
|
|
Location of Most Recent HIV Test (percent/standard error) |
|||
Characteristic |
Number of Women (thousands) |
Private Doctor's Office or HMO |
Public Health or Other Clinica |
Hospital or Emergency Room |
Other Locationb |
All womenc |
20,889 |
46.4 (0.1) |
26.8 (0.9) |
15.9 (0.7) |
10.9 (0.6) |
Race and ethnicity |
|||||
Hispanic |
2,606 |
41.8 (2.0) |
36.6 (2.2) |
14.1 (1.6) |
7.6 (1.2) |
Black, not Hispanic |
3,734 |
40.1 (1.8) |
38.6 (1.8) |
15.0 (1.2) |
6.3 (0.9) |
White, not Hispanic |
13,675 |
49.1 (1.3) |
21.8 (1.1) |
16.6 (0.9) |
12.5 (0.8) |
Education |
|||||
Less than 12 years |
4,533 |
36.7 (1.9) |
41.3 (1.9) |
16.8 (1.4) |
5.2 (0.8) |
12 years |
7,014 |
48.1 (1.5) |
26.0 (1.3) |
15.9 (1.1) |
10.0 (0.9) |
13 years or more |
9,244 |
49.8 (1.3) |
20.2 (1.2) |
15.6 (1.0) |
14.4 (1.1) |
Marital status |
|||||
Never married |
7,058 |
39.9 (1.8) |
38.3 (1.7) |
13.6 (1.2) |
8.2 (0.9) |
Married |
10,149 |
50.9 (1.3) |
18.6 (1.0) |
16.6 (1.0) |
13.9 (0.9) |
Formerly married |
3,682 |
46.3 (2.3) |
27.7 (1.9) |
18.3 (1.5) |
7.7 (1.3) |
TABLE J.6 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Self-Reporting Any Test for HIV and Percent Tested by Reason for the Last Test, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995
|
|
Reason for Last HIV Test (percent/standard error) |
|
|
||
Characteristic |
Number of Women (thousands) |
HIV Test Only Reason for Visit |
Pregnant, Prenatal Care |
Hospital Procedure/ Referred by Doctora |
Health/Life Insurance |
Other Reasonb |
All Womenc |
20,889 |
35.8 (0.8) |
25.0 (0.8) |
15.5 (0.7) |
8.5 (0.5) |
15.2 (0.7) |
Race and ethnicity |
||||||
Hispanic |
2,605 |
34.9 (2.5) |
29.5 (2.5) |
13.3 (1.4) |
8.4 (1.3) |
13.9 (1.6) |
Black, not Hispanic |
3,735 |
46.3 (1.6) |
20.5 (1.4) |
18.1 (1.2) |
5.4 (0.8) |
9.7 (1.0) |
White, not Hispanic |
13,674 |
33.6 (1.1) |
25.3 (1.0) |
15.3 (0.9) |
9.6 (0.7) |
16.2 (0.8) |
Education |
||||||
Less than 12 years |
4,533 |
39.2 (1.8) |
29.5 (1.6) |
17.4 (1.3) |
2.0 (0.5) |
11.9 (1.3) |
12 years |
7,015 |
36.6 (1.5) |
27.8 (1.4) |
15.4 (1.1) |
7.6 (0.8) |
12.6 (1.0) |
13 years or more |
9,245 |
33.3 (1.4) |
20.8 (1.0) |
14.7 (1.0) |
12.4 (0.9) |
18.8 (1.1) |
Marital status |
||||||
Never married |
7,058 |
50.8 (1.5) |
17.7 (1.2) |
15.1 (1.2) |
4.0 (0.5) |
12.5 (1.1) |
Married |
10,148 |
20.1 (1.1) |
33.5 (1.3) |
15.8 (0.9) |
13.0 (0.9) |
17.6 (1.0) |
Formerly married |
3,682 |
50.3 (2.3) |
15.7 (1.6) |
15.3 (1.4) |
4.9 (1.2) |
13.8 (1.4) |
TABLE J.7 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age Self-Reporting Any Test for HIV and Percent Tested by Referral Source for the Last Test, by Selected Demographic Characteristics: United States, 1995
|
|
Referral source (percent/standard error) |
|||
Characteristic |
Number of Women (thousands) |
Self |
Health Care Providera |
Insurer |
Otherb |
All womenc |
20,889 |
39.3 (0.9) |
42.4 (0.9) |
7.3 (0.5) |
10.9 (0.6) |
Race and ethnicity |
|||||
Hispanic |
2,606 |
40.5 (2.5) |
42.7 (2.2) |
6.7 (1.0) |
10.1 (1.1) |
Black, not Hispanic |
3,734 |
44.0 (1.8) |
44.2 (1.9) |
4.0 (0.7) |
7.7 (0.9) |
White, not Hispanic |
13,675 |
38.2 (1.1) |
41.9 (1.1) |
8.5 (0.7) |
11.4 (0.8) |
Education |
|||||
Less than 12 years |
4,533 |
38.5 (1.8) |
49.2 (1.7) |
1.8 (0.5) |
10.5 (1.2) |
12 years |
7,015 |
40.0 (1.6) |
44.4 (1.5) |
6.5 (0.7) |
9.1 (0.9) |
13 years or more |
9,244 |
38.9 (1.2) |
37.8 (1.2) |
10.7 (0.9) |
12.5 (0.9) |
Marital status |
|||||
Never married |
7,057 |
49.7 (1.5) |
36.3 (1.6) |
3.2 (0.5) |
10.7 (1.0) |
Married |
10,148 |
26.8 (1.2) |
49.9 (1.4) |
11.5 (0.8) |
11.8 (0.8) |
Formerly married |
3,683 |
54.0 (2.2) |
33.2 (2.0) |
3.8 (1.0) |
9.0 (1.3) |
Age |
|||||
15–19 |
1,865 |
42.8 (3.0) |
41.9 (3.0) |
1.5 (0.8) |
13.9 (2.3) |
20–24 |
3,606 |
41.9 (2.2) |
44.8 (2.3) |
2.9 (0.7) |
10.5 (1.6) |
25–29 |
4,372 |
39.2 (2.1) |
46.9 (2.3) |
5.9 (0.9) |
8.0 (1.0) |
30–34 |
4,615 |
35.7 (1.7) |
45.3 (1.8) |
9.0 (1.0) |
10.0 (1.0) |
35–39 |
3,764 |
37.9 (2.3) |
39.5 (2.2) |
9.8 (1.3) |
12.8 (1.4) |
40–44 |
2,643 |
41.8 (2.4) |
31.5 (2.0) |
13.7 (1.7) |
13.0 (1.7) |
Residence in metropolitan area |
|||||
MSA, central city |
7,378 |
42.4 (1.4) |
41.6 (1.4) |
5.9 (0.7) |
10.1 (1.0) |
MSA, other |
9,803 |
38.8 (1.3) |
40.9 (1.3) |
8.7 (0.7) |
11.5 (0.8) |
Non-MSA |
3,708 |
34.6 (2.3) |
47.9 (2.1) |
6.6 (1.2) |
10.9 (1.4) |
Region |
|||||
Northeast |
3,687 |
43.8 (2.1) |
35.0 (2.0) |
10.1 (1.2) |
11.2 (1.3) |
South |
7,875 |
37.4 (1.3) |
47.1 (1.4) |
5.5 (0.7) |
9.9 (0.9) |
Midwest |
4,268 |
33.2 (1.9) |
45.3 (1.9) |
7.4 (1.0) |
14.0 (1.4) |
West |
5,057 |
44.2 (2.1) |
38.0 (1.7) |
8.1 (0.9) |
9.8 (1.1) |
Poverty-level income |
|||||
0–149% |
5,685 |
40.3 (1.6) |
48.4 (1.6) |
1.5 (0.4) |
9.7 (1.1) |
150% or more |
15,203 |
39.0 (1.0) |
40.1 (1.0) |
9.5 (0.6) |
11.4 (0.7) |
NOTE: MSA = metropolitan statistical area. a Includes women for whom the idea for testing came from a doctor, health department, and hospital or medical policy. b Includes employer or school, government policy, sexual partner, and family or friends. c Includes women classified as "other" races, not shown separately because of small sample size. |
TABLE J.8 Number of Women 15–44 Years of Age by Pregnancy Status and Percent Tested for HIV In Last 12 Months by Location of Testing, Reason for Test, and Source of Referral for HIV Test: United States, 1995a
|
HIV Test Last 12 Months (percent/standard error) |
|
|
Pregnant (n = 3,266) |
Not Pregnant (n = 7,139) |
Location of test |
|
|
Private doctor's office or HMO |
62.0 (2.1) |
48.4 (1.6) |
Public health or other clinicb |
28.8 (1.9) |
30.2 (1.5) |
Hospital or emergency room |
7.2 (1.2) |
11.1 (1.0) |
Other locationsc |
2.0 (0.6) |
10.4 (1.0) |
Total |
100.0 |
100.0 |
Reason for test |
(n = 3,265) |
(n = 7,139) |
HIV test only reason for test |
19.3 (1.8) |
49.5 (1.5) |
Pregnant, prenatal care |
66.9 (2.1) |
3.4 (0.5) |
Hospital procedure/doctor referrald |
7.3 (1.1) |
22.0 (1.4) |
Health/life insurance |
2.9 (0.8) |
9.1 (0.8) |
Other reasone |
3.6 (0.8) |
16.0 (1.1) |
Total |
100.0 |
100.0 |
Source of referral for test |
(n = 3,265) |
(n = 7,139) |
Self |
24.6 (1.8) |
51.0 (1.5) |
Health care providerf |
70.0 (2.0) |
30.1 (1.4) |
Insurer |
2.3 (0.7) |
7.6 (0.8) |
Otherg |
3.1 (0.8) |
11.3 (1.1) |
Total |
100.0 |
100.0 |
a A total of 1,472 survey respondents reported that they either were pregnant at the time of the interview (430), had completed a pregnancy within 12 months of the interview (1,039), or had received pre- or postnatal care in the last 12 months (1,140). Women referred to as "pregnant" in this table are to women who were pregnant, or recently pregnant, at the time of the interview. b Includes community, family planning, public health, and other clinics. c Includes other places such as school or college, military facility, home, job site, laboratory, or donation site. d Includes being part of routine or general physical exam, and to start or renew birth control. e Includes being part of a marriage license application, for employment, because potentially exposed to HIV, for immigration or visa application, and for school or college. f Includes women for whom the idea for testing came from a doctor, health department, or hospital or medical policy. g Includes employer or school, government policy, sexual partner, and family or friends. |
TABLE J.9 Logistic Regression Model, Predictors of Any Self-Reported HIV Test Among Women by Pregnancy Status, United States, 1995a,b
|
Odds Ratio Coefficient (95 percent confidence interval) |
|
||
Model Parameter |
Not Pregnant |
Pregnant |
Not Pregnant |
Pregnant |
Intercept |
-1.2975 |
-0.4283 |
|
|
Race/ethnicity |
||||
Black |
0.4234* |
0.2025 |
1.53 (1.33–1.76) |
1.22 (0.86–1.74) |
Hispanic |
0.0777 |
-0.1010 |
1.08 (0.89–1.31) |
0.90 (0.61–1.35) |
Other race |
-0.1686 |
-0.0903 |
0.84 (0.59–1.21) |
0.91 (0.50–1.68) |
White, not Hispanic |
— |
— |
|
|
Marital status |
||||
Never married |
-0.0476 |
0.0857 |
0.95 (0.82–1.12) |
1.09 (0.77–1.55) |
Formerly married |
0.4834* |
0.8050* |
1.62 (1.42–1.86) |
2.24 (1.36–3.68) |
Married |
— |
— |
|
|
Residence in metro area |
||||
MSA central |
0.3227* |
0.2823 |
1.38 (1.16–1.65) |
1.33 (0.88–2.00) |
MSA other |
0.2110* |
-0.0058 |
1.23 (1.03–1.47) |
0.99 (0.66–1.51) |
non-MSA |
— |
— |
|
|
Residence-region |
||||
Northeast |
-0.2373* |
0.1695 |
0.79 (0.66–0.94) |
1.18 (0.80–1.74) |
Midwest |
-0.3624* |
-0.0715 |
0.70 (0.59–0.82) |
0.93 (0.61–1.43) |
South |
0.0078 |
0.5909* |
1.01 (0.86–1.18) |
1.81 (1.20–2.71) |
West |
— |
— |
|
|
Poverty |
||||
0–149% |
0.1634* |
0.0156 |
1.18 (1.03–1.34) |
1.02 (0.75–1.37) |
150% or more |
— |
— |
|
|
Years of education |
||||
Less than 12 years |
-0.2251* |
0.4254* |
0.80 (0.67–0.94) |
1.53 (1.03–2.26) |
12 years |
-0.2379* |
0.1374 |
0.79 (0.71–0.87) |
1.15 (0.86–1.53) |
13 years or more |
— |
— |
|
|
Age |
||||
15–19 |
-0.4555* |
0.2697 |
0.63 (0.46–0.88) |
1.31 (0.52–3.29) |
20–24 |
0.5249* |
0.1734 |
1.69 (1.37–2.09) |
1.19 (0.55–2.55) |
25–29 |
0.6969* |
0.1901 |
2.01 (1.69–2.39) |
1.21 (0.56–2.61) |
30–34 |
0.5974* |
0.4478 |
1.82 (1.54–2.14) |
1.56 (0.75–3.28) |
35–39 |
0.3486* |
-0.2564 |
1.42 (1.21–1.65) |
0.77 (0.35–1.70) |
40–44 |
— |
— |
|
|