The Drama of the Commons (2002) / Chapter Skim
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Pages 499-521
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From page 499... ...
See Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy 499 Aggregate limits, defining, in design of tradable permits, 206-207 Agreements, ability to build, 5 Agroforestry, 73n Air pollution, 23 success in controlling, 221 Alaska, Native land claims in, 268 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 286n Allocation of resources, 108n initial, in design of tradable permits, 207-209 intrahousehold, 73n relationship to maintenance levels, 102 Allowable biological catch (ABC) , 207, 224n Ambient Air Quality Standards (AAQS)
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From page 500... ...
, 251 Canadian North, fur trade in, 297-298 Canal networks, 99-100 Capacity, in interplay between international and national environmental regimes, 276-279 Case study research, roles of, 467 Cattle herds, 56 Causal analysis, 67-68, 447-451 knowledge about processes and mechanisms, 458-459 links for institutional sustainability, illustrative sets of, 69-70 paths describing hypothesized effects of wealth or wealth inequality on the maintenance of common-pool Causation resources, 448 Causal models development and testing of, 468 specifying carefully, 66 contingent and multiple, 67 of perceptual factors influencing cooperation in commons dilemmas, 137-139 proximate, 408 in situated rational choice, determining, 367-369 ultimate, 408 CBMRs. See Community-based management regimes CFCs.
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From page 501... ...
, 3, 15, 17-18, 87-112. See also Common resources, Commons causal paths describing hypothesized effects of wealth or wealth inequality on maintenance of, 448 as collective goods, 93 cost of measurement, 24 governance of, 26 need for extending insights to a broader array of, 472-474 renewable or nonrenewable, 22-23 scale of, 23-24 sustainable management of, 46-54 Common-Pool Resources database, 5, 28n Common-pool sinks, 19 Common property regimes, 15, 17-18, 27, 4185.
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From page 502... ...
, 27 and commerce in resources, 247-250 compared with TEAs, 233-257 extraction vs. pollution in, 245-247 as management institutions, 237-253 nested, 238-239 and resource complexity, 240-245 and resource size, 237-240 rights structures in, 248-249 synthesis in, 250-253 varying solutions under varying conditions, 237-253 Comparative methods, 467 Compatibility, in interplay between international and national environmental regimes, 276-279 Competence, in interplay between international and national environmental regimes, 276-279 Competitive individuals, 161 Complex systems, 327-359 collective learning in complex adaptive systems, 340-351 conditional view of uncertainty, 332-334 example from the New England fisheries, 328-329 learning in complex adaptive systems, 335-340 response to uncertainty, 329-332 uncertainty in complex adaptive systems, 334-335 Complexity, 312 of human motivation, 3 a problem in commons management, 426-427 of resources, 240-245
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From page 503... ...
, 280-281, 287n Consumption jointness of, or rivalness of, 19 problem of overconsumption, 123 Contingencies, 453, 455 Contingent causation, 67 503 Contingent generalizations, 446-447 Contingent hypotheses, expanded use of multicase comparative methods for investigating, 467 Contingent relationships, 131 empirically supported, between group heterogeneity and institutional performance, 447 Contributions to the public good, with and without punishment, 177 Controls, of egotistical and antisocial impulses, 5 Cooperation, 404-406 contingent on many things, 405 cross-disciplinary, 39 effect of numbers of actors on, 23 heterogeneity inducing, 24 human proneness to, 404 uncertainty reducing, 126 Cooperation in commons dilemmas experimental primer, 117-118 factors influencing, 113-156 framework, 115-117 historical roots of experimental research on commons dilemmas, 114-115 recent findings in the experimental literature, 118-144 a review of experimental psychological research, 113-156 synthesis, 144-148 Cooperative individuals, 120, 161 Cooperative institutions evolution of, 412-425 segmentary hierarchy, 418-425 tribal social instincts hypothesis, 413415 work-around hypothesis, 415-418 Cooperative Resource Management Committees (CRMCs) , 424, 428 Coordination, in appropriating the commons, 173-175 Correlations, identifying, 14 Corruption, in public officials, 13-14 Costly exclusions, 21 Costly punishment, 176-178 Costs.
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From page 504... ...
theory-driven, 39 Decision making. See also Framing deliberative processes in, 469-471 Decision structure of the task, 122-127 payoff structure, 122-125 uncertainty, 125-127 Defections, by users, 95, 127 Deforestation, in Senegal, 95 Deliberative processes in common-pool resource studies, 383-384 in decision making, 469-471 Demographic changes, 477 Density, of institutions, 263 Dependent variables, 455 Descent of Man, 403 Design considerations for tradable permits, 202-216 adaptive management, 205-206 baseline issue, 204 defining the aggregate limits, 206-207 enforcement, 215-216 governance structures, 202-204 initial allocation method, 207-209 legal nature of the entitlement, 205 monitoring, 212-215 the temporal dimension, 211-212 transferability rules, 209-211 Design of common-pool institutions, 327-359 collective learning in complex adaptive systems, 340-351 conditional view of uncertainty, 332-334 example from the New England fisheries, 328-329 learning in complex adaptive systems, 335-340 response to uncertainty, 329-332 uncertainty in complex adaptive systems, 334-335 Design principles, 390 Ostrom's, for institutional sustainability, 50 for resource institutions, 16 robust, 25 Developing countries, poverty in, 12 Development arrangements, cross-scale linkages in, 304-307 Dictator game, 136 Direccio'n General de Aguas, 203 Directionality, in communication, 136
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From page 505... ...
INDEX Discourse, in common-pool resource studies, 383-384 Dispute settlement, 15 Distribution of benefits, unfair, 66 Diversity, a problem in commons management, 426-427 Diversity of human cooperation, 404-406 cooperation contingent on many things, 405 human proneness to cooperation, even with strangers, 404 in institutions, 405 institutions as product of evolution, 405 Dominance, coercive, 416-418 Donors, international, needing to understand property rights impacts, 15 Doughnut hole, 287n Drop-through mechanism, 206 Drosophilia melanogaster, 409 ideal experimental organism, 5, 28n Dynamics in cross-scale interactions, 310-315 adaptive management, 311-313 the environmental consequences of, and institutional interplay, 263-291 resilience, 313-315 Dynamics of resource management institutions, 469-472 conflict management, 471-472 deliberative processes in decision making, 469-471 emergence, adaptation, and evolution of institutions, 472 institutional learning, 471 E Ecology actor-focused, and the economics of flexibility, 375-378 event, 389, 393n political, in common-pool resource studies, 363, 378-381 Economic heterogeneity, 37 Economic theory of tradable permits, 27, 199202 approach to optimal resource management, 199-200 comparing with environmental taxes, 201-202 Economists, resource, early formal analyses of the commons by, 9-11 505 Ecosystems concern with, 28n and learning in complex adaptive systems, 338-340 oceanic, fish harvested from, 3 EEZs. See Exclusive economic zones; Extended economic zones Effectiveness, of sanctioning systems, 124-125 Efficacy, 146 collective, 132-133 illusions of, 133 Efficiency issues, 93, 165-169, 193, 224n Egotistical impulses controlling, 5 studying, 130 Embeddedness, in common-pool resource studies, 381-384 Emergence, 337 Emergence of other-regarding behavior, 144146 Emergence of institutions for the commons contexts, situations, and events, 361-402 directions in common-pool resource studies, 375-387 question-driven research on, 387-392 rapidity of, 429-430 situated rational choice in, 363-375 social constructionism in, 387-392 specifying the commons in, 392-393 Emergence of self-organized organizations, conditions for, 456 Emergency situations, response patterns in, 148n Emissions Trading Program, 204 Empirical validity, questions of, 11, 16 Empowerment arrangements, cross-scale linkages in, 304-307 Enabling conditions, critical, for sustainability on the commons, 62-63 Endowment of resources heterogeneity of, 60 initial, of users, 15 Enforcement costs of, 450 in design of tradable permits, 215-216 of limits on environmental effects, 218219 of norms, 172 English Commons, 42
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From page 506... ...
See Multilevel evolution Evolution of cooperative institutions, 412-425 segmentary hierarchy, 418-425 tribal social instincts hypothesis, 413415 work-around hypothesis, 415-418 Evolution of culture. See Cultural evolution Evolutionary models accounting for the processes that shape heritable genetic and cultural variation through time, 407-408 consistency with a wide variety of theories, 411-412 explaining the nature of preferences and institutions, 406-407 recursiveness of, 407 use in the social sciences, 412 Evolutionary theory of commons management, 4, 403-442 evolution of cooperative institutions, 412-425 outstanding questions, 426-432 testing hypotheses, 425-426 theories of cooperation, 404-412 Exclusion, 29n, 74n of beneficiaries, impossibility of, 19-20 costly, 21 example of barbed wire, 57 Exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
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From page 507... ...
, 275 Fishing technology, destructiveness of modern, 22 Flexibility of cooperative institutions in commons management, 427-428 economics of, and actor-focused ecology in common-pool resource studies, 375-378 Ford Foundation, conference sponsored by, 28n Forests Framing timber harvested from, 3 understanding, 22, 73n in perceptual factors influencing cooperation in commons dilemmas, 140-144 of property rights, 142 in social dilemmas, 140 Free-rider problem, 4, 19-21, 177 in the context of the village, 12 solving, 122, 374 Functional interplay, 260 Functionalist theory, 4 Fungibility, 212 Fur trade, in the Canadian North, 297-298 G Gadus morhua, 391 Game of chicken, 12, 28n Game theory, 12, 37, 89, 174, 452 repeated, 107n Games coordination, 18 in one-shot, 163-164 GEF. See Global Environment Facility Gender differences, 107n, 121 Generalizability, challenges to, 11 Generalizations conditional, 458 contingent, 446-447 Genes, convolving with culture, 413, 415 Genetic variation between groups, factors limiting, 434n processes that shape heritable, through time, 407-408 Georges Bank, 349
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From page 508... ...
See also Users behavior of, 9, 20, 56-57, 95, 117, 126127, 367 poor monitoring of, 11 INDEX Head-end differences, vs. tail-end, in large-e studies of unequal irrigators, 88, 99-100 Herding in Mali, 95 in Mauritania, 95 Heritable genetic and cultural variation, processes that shape through time, 407-408 Heterogeneity, 26 cultural, 89 economic, 37 of endowment of resources, 60 ethnic, 89, 96 ethnic and social, in large-e studies of unequal irrigators, 101 four types of, 29n group, empirically supported contingent relationship with institutional performance, 447 of individual preferences, 161 inducing cooperation, 24 of interests, 60 intragroup, 60 large-e studies of, 96-102 in large-scale multivariate research, 87112 social, 146 spatial and temporal, 15 summary of empirical studies, 104-105 Heuristic classifications, 480n Highgrading, 213, 243 Historical context, 474-477 globalization syndrome, 475-476 major demographic changes, 477 other global social changes, 476-477 technological change, 477 Hoarding, 210 Homo economicus, perspective of, 170 Horizontal interplay, 260 Horizontal linkages, in institutions for the commons, 293, 372-374 How Institutions Think, 387 Human cooperation.
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From page 509... ...
, 203, 210, 213-216, 218-221, 272, 274-275 Individualism, 8, 161 Indonesia, harvesting of tropical forests in, 270 Indulgences, sale of in the Middle Ages, 224n Industrialization, effects of, 42 Inequalities, 75n of income, in large-e studies of unequal irrigators, 98-99 of wealth causal paths describing hypothesized effects on the maintenance of common-pool resources, 448 in large-e studies of unequal irrigators, 99 Inequity-averse subjects, 37, 160-161 asymmetric equilibria with, 168, 188-190 best response function of, 165 symmetric equilibria with, 167-168, 186-188 Information technology, 214 Infrastructure investments, in Pakistan, 97, 99 Initial allocation method, in design of tradable permits, 207-209 Initial endowment of resources, of users, 15 Institutional arrangements defining performance of, 14 effect of group size on performance of, 15 in resource management institutions, 487-488 Institutional attributes, 21 Institutional design challenges, 27-28, 461-466 adapting to change in social and environmental conditions, 466 addressing negative externalities for other resources, 463 establishing appropriate linkages among institutions, 465-466 low-cost enforcement of rules, 462 managing resources with imperfect knowledge, 464-465 monitoring the resource and users' compliance with rules, 462-463 reconciling conflicting values and interests, 464 refining understanding of, 469 Institutional Dimensions of Global Environmental Change, 308
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From page 510... ...
See also Institutional arrangements; Cooperative institutions; Self-organized organizations building on existing, 370-372 defined, 21, 286n density of, 263 effective, 24-26 emergence, adaptation, and evolution of, 363-375, 429-430, 472 establishing appropriate linkages among, 465-466 evolutionary models explaining the nature of, 406-407 flexibility of, 427-428 horizontal and vertical linkages, 372-374 huge variation in, 405-406 importance of, 405 INDEX indigenous, 11 learning in, 471 legitimate, 423-425 legitimization of local-level, 299 muddling through, 374-375 as product of evolution, 405 rights and incentives of, 347-351 and step-wise model of situated rational choice, 365-370 viability of, to manage resources, 74n village-level, 12 voting, 131 Integration, of research results, 451-452 Intellectual history of the commons, 6-17 early formal analyses of the commons by resource economists, 9-11 early work on the commons, 8 Hardin's model and its limitations, 11-14 Panel on Common Property Resource Management, 14-17 point of departure, 6-8 Interactions anticipation of future, 5 one-time, 4 in resource management institutions, 489 Interests heterogeneity of, 60 reconciling conflicting, 464 Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) , 269 Intermarriage patterns, 434n Internalized personal commitment norms, 135136 International Association for the Study of Common Property (IASCP)
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From page 511... ...
See International Tropical Timber Agreement J James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (Canada) , 300, 302-303 Joint Forest Management, in India, 301 Joint-stock company, 8 Jointness of consumption, 19 Juntas de vigilancia, 203 Just society, life in, as a public good, 20 Justice, local, 75n K Key terms, 17-26 effective institutions, 24-26 free-ricer problem, 19-21 institutional attributes, 21 problem of overuse, 18-19 renewable or nonrenewable commonpool resources, 22-23 scale of common-pool resources, 23-24 Kin selection, in multilevel evolution, 409 Knowledge, scientific, as a public good, 5 511 Knowledge base, 26-27, 466-469 case study research role, 467 causal paths describing hypothesized effects of wealth or wealth inequality on maintenance of common-pool resources, 448 classification of variables from the commons literature, 455 costs of monitoring and enforcement, 450 development and testing of causal models, 468 directions for research, 466-479 improving conceptual categories, 468-469 lessons learned, 454-466 managing resources with imperfect, 464465 multicase comparative methods for investigating contingent hypotheses, 467 progress in the field, 445-454 proposed hypotheses about resource management institutions, 487-489 refining understanding of institutional design, 469 relationship between group heterogeneity and institutional performance, 447 roles of case study research, 467 systematic development of, 466-469 triangulation, 468 L Lakes exclusion in, 29n pollution of, 23 Lamarckian effects, 408 Land tenure, in interplay between (sub)
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From page 512... ...
See also Adaptive management; Co-management; Common management; Resource management in Africa, 73n enabling cross-scale linkages, 308-310 in India, 73n multilevel, 15 in the Philippines, 73n successful, 73n, 106 Management institutions, CBMR and TEA regimes as, 237-253 Marginalization, of sheep flocks, 75-76n Marine resources in interplay between international and national environmental regimes, 281-283 regimes for, 281-283 Market forces, 72n, 416 effects of emerging and spreading, 42, 56 to implement policy, 193 Market integration, 57 Mating systems, 434n Matrices, for payoff structure, 141 Mauritania, herding in, 95 Maximum economic yield (MEY) , 241 Maximum sustainable yield, 10 Maximum use, sustainable yield (MUSY)
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From page 513... ...
See also Reciprocally motivated subjects assumptions about, 3 complexity of, 3 diverse, 179 for follow-up on commitments, 135 individual differences in social, 118-121 prosocial vs. proself, 118-121 for willingness to tackle social dilemmas, 139 Multicase comparative methods, for investigating contingent hypotheses, 467 Multilevel evolution, 408-409 group selection, 409 individual-level selection, 408-409 kin selection, 409 Multilevel management, 15 Multiple causation, 67 Multiple equilibria, 174 Multistakeholder bodies cross-scale linkages between, 304 examples of, 305 Multivariate research, large-scale, heterogeneity and commons management in, 87-112 MUSY.
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From page 514... ...
See World peace People's Biodiversity Registers (PER) , in India, 307 Perceptual factors influencing cooperation in commons dilemmas, 137-144 causes, 137-139 frames, 140-144 INDEX Philippines harvesting of tropical forests in, 270 irrigation systems in, 97 management in, 73n Plan of Pitic, 418 Platteau, facilitating conditions for institutional sustainability identified by, 54-55 Play.
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From page 515... ...
public, 29n Private property, in the Swiss Alps, 13 Privatization, 95 comparing community-based management to tradable environmental allowances, 233-257 and its limitations, 50-51, 193-257 tradable permits approach to protecting the commons, 197-232 Procedural fairness, 159 Processes, 27 deliberative, in decision making, 469-471 that shape heritable genetic and cultural variation through time, 407-408 Production technology, nonconvexities in, 91 Progress of the field, 445-454 causal analysis, 447-451 contingent generalizations, 446-447 development and differentiation of topologies, 446 integration of research results, 451-452 toward a conceptual framework, 452-454 Property, 15, 17-18, 27. See also International Association for the Study of Common Property; Panel on Common Property Resource Management in Ethopia, 13 regulatory, 233-257 in the Swiss Alps, 13 in Upper Burma, 13 Property rights, 72n framing of, 142 guarantors of, 58 international donors needing to understand impacts of, 15 Proself motives, 118-121 Prosocial motives, 118-121 Prospect theory, in social dilemmas, 140 Protocols of play, 127 Proximate causes, 408 Psychological research on cooperation in commons dilemmas, 113-156 experimental, 113-156 framework for, 115-117 historical roots of, 114-115 primer of, 117-118 515 recent findings in, 118-144 synthesis of, 144-148 Public domain, 267-268 Public goods, 4, 93 comparing, 176-178 preferences for type of, 96 providing, 20 vs.
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From page 516... ...
See also Maintenance; Sustainable management economic approach to optimal, 199-200 with imperfect knowledge, 464-465 role of population in, 56 Resource management institutions, 26 and costs of monitoring and enforcement, 450 design principles for, 16 INDEX external environment, 489 group and individual characteristics, 488-489 institutional arrangements, 487-488 interaction among factors, 489 proposed hypotheses about, 487-489 and resource system characteristics, 488 Resource size, 237-240 CBMRs and, 237-238 nested CBMRs and, 238-239 TEAs and, 239-240 Resource systems, 37-191 appropriating the commons, 157-191 and characteristics of resource management institutions, 488 common resources and institutional sustainability, 41-85 factors influencing cooperation in commons dilemmas, 113-156 heterogeneity and commons management in large-scale multivariate research, 87-112 and unequal irrigators, 87-112 Resource theft, 123 Resource users. See Users Resources addressing negative externalities for, 463 biological species as, 22, 55 characteristics of, and costs of monitoring and enforcement, 450 commerce in, 247-250 environmental effects on, 219-220 exploitation of, 7 heterogeneity of endowment of, 60 intrahousehold allocation of, 73n managing with imperfect knowledge, 464-465 ownership of, 21 race to use, 11 regimes for marine, 281-283 regimes for terrestrial, 279-281 supplements to, 49 of users, initial endowment of, 15 value of, 129-130 viability of institutions to manage, 74n Response function, best in inequity-averse subjects, 165 Result efficiency, 193 Revenue, from fishing effort, 10 Rewards, 124, 160, 180n
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From page 517... ...
and collective learning in complex adaptive systems, 340-351 in complex adaptive systems, 334-335 conditional view of, 332-334 517 example from the New England fisheries, 328-329 and learning in complex adaptive systems, 335-340 response to, 329-332 Sea tenure, in interplay between (sub) national and local resource regimes, 271276 Segmentary hierarchy of cooperative institutions, 418-425 exploitation of symbolic systems, 420423 legitimate institutions, 423-425 Selection group, in multilevel evolution, 409 individual-level, in multilevel evolution, 408-409 by kin, in multilevel evolution, 409 natural, in cultural evolution, 410-411 Self-efficacious groups, 132 Self-interest, 4, 28n Self-organized organizations, emergence of, 456 Selfish Nash Equilibrium (SNE)
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From page 518... ...
See Case study research; Commonpool resource studies; Large-n studies of unequal irrigators; Research; Understudied issues Subsistence practices, 266 Subtractability, 20-21, 29n Successful management, 73n, 106 Supply, institutional, problem of, 90, 93 Sustainability, 313 on the commons, critical enabling conditions for, 62-63 institutional, and common resources, 4185 Sustainable management best tool for, 25 of common-pool resources, 46-54 Sustainable policy instruments, valuemaximizing, 200 Sustainable yield, maximum, 10 Switzerland commons in, 72n private and common property in, 13 Symbolic systems, exploitation of, 420-423 Symbolically marked groups, 422 Symmetric equilibria, with inequity-averse subjects, 167-168, 186-188 Synthesis in commons dilemmas, 144-148 emergence of other-regarding behavior, 144-146 environmental uncertainty, 148 scale of the dilemma, 146-147 social heterogeneity, 146
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From page 519... ...
See Tradable environmental allowances regimes Technology pace of change in, 477 production, nonconvexities in, 91 Temporal dimension, in design of tradable permits, 211-212 Temporal heterogeneity, 15 Tenure systems land, 267-271 sea, 271-276 Terrestrial resources, regimes for, 279-281 Territoriality, 124 Testing, of causal models, 468 Teutonic families, 8 Texas. See South Texas shrimp fisheries Theoretical adequacy, challenges to, 11 Theoretical expectations, unfulfilled, in the tradable permits approach, 223-224 Theoretical explanations, of appropriating the commons, 157-191 Theoretical models of reciprocity and fairness in appropriating the commons, 159-163 preferences of inequity aversion, 162 Theoretical predictions about the common-pool resource game with sanctioning opportunities, 169-172 about the impact of communication, 172176 about the standard common-pool resource game, 164-169 Theories of cooperation, 404-412 consistency of evolutionary models with a wide variety of theories, 411-412 evolution as multilevel, 408-409 519 evolution of culture, 410-411 evolutionary models accounting for genetic and cultural variation through time, 407-408 evolutionary models explaining the nature of preferences and institutions, 406-407 extent and diversity of human cooperation, 404-406 huge variation in institutions, 405-406 wide use of evolutionary models in the social sciences, 412 Theory-driven research, vs.
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From page 520... ...
See also Scientific uncertainty in complex adaptive systems, 334-335 conditional view of, 332-334 in decision structure of the task, 125-127 defined, 333 environmental, 148 integrating into decision-making process, 311 reducing cooperation, 126 response to, 329-332 Understanding of actors, generally correct, 459 of institutional design, refining, 469 Understudied issues, 27, 469-479 dynamics of resource management Values institutions, 469-472 effects of social and historical context, 474-477 extending insights to a broader array of common-pool resources, 472-474 institutional linkages, 477-479 Unequal irrigators and commons management in large-scale multivariate research, 87-112 and heterogeneity, 88-96 large-e studies of, 96-102 summary of empirical studies, 104-105 Unfair distribution, of benefits, 66 Unfulfilled theoretical expectations, lessons on the tradable permits approach, 223 224 United Nations, Conference on Environment and Development, 282 U.S. Agency for International Development, conference sponsored by, 28n INDEX U.S.
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From page 521... ...
, 265 World peace, as a public good, 5, 20 World Trade Organization (WTO) , 265, 308 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
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