Measuring Racial Discrimination (2004) / Chapter Skim
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4 Theories of Discrimination
4 Theories of Discrimination
Pages 55-70
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From page 55... ...
The fourth type involves discriminatory practices embedded in an organizational culture. Next, we compare these discriminatory behaviors and institutional practices with existing legal standards defining discrimination in the courts 55
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From page 56... ...
Finally, we discuss concepts of how cumulative discrimination might operate across domains and over time to produce lasting consequences for disadvantaged racial groups. This chapter is not concerned with identifying the relative importance of the various types of discrimination; rather, it is designed to present a set of conceptual possibilities that can motivate and shape appropriate research study designs.
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From page 57... ...
In legal settings, verbal and nonverbal treatment are often presented as evidence of a discriminator's biased state of mind; they may also constitute unlawful discriminatory behavior when they rise to the level of creating a hostile work environment. Avoidance entails choosing the comfort of one's own racial group (the "ingroup" in social psychological terms)
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From page 58... ...
Although prejudicial attitudes do not necessarily result in discriminatory behavior with adverse effects, the persistence of such attitudes can result in unconscious and subtle forms of racial discrimination in place of more explicit, direct hostility. Such subtle prejudice is often abetted by differential media portrayals of nonwhites versus whites, as well as de facto segregation in housing, education, and occupations.
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From page 59... ...
, negative stereotypic associations (Fazio and Olson, 2003) , and discriminatory behavioral impulses (Bargh and Chartrand, 1999)
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From page 60... ...
Subtle prejudice is much more difficult to document than more overt forms, and its effects on discriminatory behavior are more difficult to capture. However, "subtle" does not mean trivial or inconsequential; subtle prejudice can result in major adverse effects.
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From page 61... ...
Thus, if an employer believes people with criminal records will make unsatisfactory employees, believes that blacks, on average, are more likely to have criminal records compared with whites, and cannot directly verify an applicant's criminal history, the employer may judge a black job applicant on the basis of group averages rather than solely on the basis of his or her own qualifications. When beliefs about a group are based on racial stereotypes resulting from explicit prejudice or on some of the more subtle forms of ingroupversus-outgroup perceptual biases, then discrimination on the basis of such beliefs is indistinguishable from the explicit prejudice discussed above.
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From page 62... ...
For example, graduate school applicants provide only a few pages of written information about themselves, job applicants are judged on the basis of a one-page resume or a brief interview, and airport security officers see only external appearance. In such situations, the decision maker must make assessments about a host of unknown factors, such as effort, intelligence, or intentions, based on highly limited observation.
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From page 63... ...
Organizational Processes The above three types of racial discrimination focus on individual behaviors that lead to adverse outcomes and perpetuate differences in outcomes for members of disadvantaged racial groups. These behaviors are also the focus of much of the current discrimination law.
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From page 64... ...
Seniority systems that give preference to a long-established group of employees can produce similar racially biased effects through promotion or layoff decisions, even though the Supreme Court has ruled that seniority systems are generally not subject to challenge under Title VII on this basis.1 Institutional processes that result in consistent racial biases in terms of who is included or excluded can be difficult to disentangle. In many cases, the individuals involved in making decisions within these institutions will honestly deny any intent to discriminate.
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From page 65... ...
can be used to provide information on which processes and which institutions may deserve greater scrutiny. COMPARISON OF LEGAL STANDARDS WITH THE FOUR TYPES OF DISCRIMINATION As discussed in Chapter 3, the legal definition of discrimination includes two standards: disparate treatment discrimination, whereby an individual is treated less favorably because of race, and disparate impact discrimination, whereby treatment on the basis of nonracial factors that lack sufficiently compelling justification has an adverse impact on members of a disadvantaged racial group.
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From page 66... ...
The first point is discrimination in access to the institutions within a domain; examples are racial differentials in hiring in the labor market, racial steering in housing, financial aid for schooling, arrest rates or policing activity within communities, and access to certain medical institutions or procedures. The second point is discrimination while functioning within a domain; examples are racial differentials in wages, mortgage loan pricing, placement into special education programs, assignment of pro bono legal counsel, and quality of health care.
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From page 67... ...
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From page 68... ...
The remainder of this report addresses the methods that are used to investigate possibly discriminatory behavior within the various cells of this matrix. We do not attempt to provide a comprehensive review of the literature on racial discrimination within each of the categories and domains listed in Table 4-1.
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From page 69... ...
, job retention, job promotion, and wage setting may result in large differences in labor market outcomes when these effects cumulate over time, even if no further discrimination occurs. There are many instances in which the application of neutral rules harms a member of a disadvantaged racial group because of discrimination at some other time or place in the social system.
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From page 70... ...
Regardless of which form it takes, discrimination can create barriers to equal treatment and opportunity and can have adverse effects on various outcomes. Clear theories about how discriminatory behavior may occur are important in order to develop models that help identify and measure discrimination's effects.
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Key Terms
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