America's Highways Accelerating the Search for Innovation -- Special Report 202 (1984) / Chapter Skim
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PART I Overview and Fundamental Approach
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1 The Highway Industry The heed for a strategic assessment of the nation's highway research stems from the fact that the United States highway industry is large, fragmented, and lacks both the organization and the economic incentives to support needed research. Thereford progress in developing ithproved materials and methods of constructibrI is too slow, uneven, and inadequate to cope with maintaining and replacing the rapidly deteriorating highway system.
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16 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS to the public agencies responsible for highways. This industry spent $43 billion in 1982 -- more than the steel, textile, or paper industries.
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The Highway Industry 17 TABLE 4 New Highway Construction: Top 10 Expenditure Categories (4) a Industry Name Percentage of Highway Industry Expenditures Cumulative Percentage Concrete products 13.30 13.30 Wholesale trade 9.05 22.35 Stone and clay mining and quarrying 8.30 30.65 Petroleum refining and miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal 8.20 38.85 Paving mixtures and blocks 6.06 44.91 Ready-mixed concrete 6.20 51.11 Fabricated structural metal 5.40 56.51 Motor freight transportation 5.00 61.51 Miscellaneous professional services 4.80 66.31 Retail trade 3.40 69.71 'Total number of industries represented here is 102; 49 of these are so small that together they represent only 0.25 percent of total purchases.
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18 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS TABLE 5 Highway Maintenance and Repair: Top 10 Expenditure Categories (4) a Industry Name Percentage of Highway Industry Expenditures Cumulative Percentage Stone and clay mining and quarrying 16.9 16.9 Petroleum refining and miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal 10.3 27.2 Paving mixtures and blocks 9.7 36.9 Motor freight transportation 9.4 46.3 Wholesale trade 6.0 52.3 Ready-mixed concrete 4.9 57.2 Fabricated structural metal 4.0 61.2 Retail trade 3.8 65.0 Miscellaneous business services 3.4 68.4 Sheet metal work 2.9 71.3 'Total number of industries represented here is 113; the combined purchases from 56 of these represent only 0.87 percent of total purchases.
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TABLE 6 Suppliers Share of Highway Industry Market (5) Average Share Average Share Total Share for for Top 50 Share for Total Market for Single Firm Top 50 Firms Firms Top 50 Firms Sector No.
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20 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS highway purposes. The remainder goes into private and public buildings, defense installations, dams and river channels, harbors, and airports.
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The Highway Industry 21 To the extent the highway industry is similar to a shared monopoly, such as the public utilities, its research activities would demonstrate the negative attributes of both small and large monopolies. Ironically, even with its monopolistic features, investor-owned public utilities spend over $600 million per year on research -- more than 0.6 percent of their gross revenues.
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22 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS The highway industry will spend over a trillion dollars in the remainder of this century; thus asphalt, concrete, steel, paints, and other products are important industries. Nevertheless, because of the large number of highway agencies, the market for highway materials and equipment is highly fragmented.
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The Highway Industry 23 to improve our profit potential, given the billions that are going to be spent on these various safety improvements? However, in view of the nature of the highway industry who, if anyone, will ask such questions?
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2 Highway Research Activities ORIGIN OF HIGHWAY RESEARCH Federally sponsored research on the nation's highways antedates the automobile age.
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Highway Research Activities 25 of 1934 provided that 1.5 percent of annual road appropriations to any state could be used for surveys, plans, or engineering investigations. The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 broadened the uses of this 1.5 percent to include planning and research much as they are defined today, and the series of highway acts since 1944 has continuously provided the states with research funds through this program.
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26 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS can be reduced. Also, planners can consider more fully the environmental consequences of various alternatives.
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Highway Research Activities 27 Historically road building began as the responsibility of the smaller units of government: cities, municipalities, and counties. In the latter part of the 19th century states began to play a role in road finance, and federal involvement dates from early in the 20th century.
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28 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS TABLE 7 R&D Funds as a Percentage of Sales for U.S. Industries: 1982 (3)
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Highway Research Activities 29 tenance, to be such very simple things that, like other states of dust, such as the soil itself, there appears to be needed only a little ordinary practice to fit any dabster to deal with them." (4) This perception of simplicity persists today.
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30 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS policies. Because most highways are constructed for governments -- whether federal, state, county, or local -- research on highways is subject to short-term governmental budgetary pressures.
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Highway Research Activities 31 to the Highway Research Information Service (HRIS) at the Transportation Research Board (TRB)
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32 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS ing on research and development.
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Highway Research Activities 33 TABLE 9 A Comparison of'Foreign and U.S. Spending for Highway Research Programs (9)
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34 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Highway Planning and Research (HP&R) Program HP&R funds are by far the largest source of support for highway research.
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Highway Research Activities 35 Transportation Officials (AASHTO) , the FHWA, and TRB to combine resources in a new research program created to address common problems.
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36 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS About 15 to 25 percent of FHWA research staff time is spent on research or development; the remainder goes to planning, administering, and monitoring sponsored research activities. Between 1970 and 1982, the number of researchers at FHWA was reduced from 257 to 165, and 44 of the remaining staff were involved in informing others of research results rather than performing research(10)
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Highway Research Activities 37 Additionally, the Office of University Research of the U.S. Department of Transportation funds highway transportation research projects through a special grant program.
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38 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS runway pavements; perhaps $0.5 million per year of this is applicable to highways. The National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
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Highway Research Activities 39 The major associations and institutes concerned with highways and highway construction have all curtailed research activities in recent years at least partly in response to declines in total construction activity during the recession. In testimony prepared for the Committee on Science and Technology of the U.S.
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40 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS These activities include an extensive program for publishing research results, an annual meeting and many regional and special purpose meetings, technical information-exchange visits to transportation agencies, a computer-based information system covering recent and ongoing research projects, and various special projects. TABLE 10 Spending for Highway Research by Major Sponsors, 1982 $ Million States Highway Planning and Research (HP&R)
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Highway Research Activities 41 REFERENCES America's Highways 1 776-1976.
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3 Gaps in the Current System of Highway Research Research should be directed to areas that are important, to elements that can be improved, and to results that can be achieved. Highway research is characterized by unique features that affect how this focus should be achieved.
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Gaps in Highway Research 43 Does the research require an integrated effort or national approach? Does the research respond to new and potential changes in national policy?
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1940 45 50 55 60 65 70 75, 80 YEAR Note: (a) Ton-miles of intercity freight as reported by the Interstate Commerce Commission (1)
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Gaps in Highway Research 45 TABLE 11 Distribution of General Highway. Expenditures Versus Distribution of Research Expenditures .
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46 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS way groups. For example, a Martin Marietta Corporation executive, when asked about the low level of highway-related research in his company, responded that there is no incentive to do research on highways because rigid standards and low-bid procurement practices inhibit product innovation.
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Gaps in Highway Research 47 gia, Florida limestone lacks strength and thus pavements containing the material crack and wear much faster. Yet political realities made it futile to think about importing Georgia granite.
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48 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Analysis of the 1981 Federally Coordinated Program of Highway Research and Development (FCP) showed 7 projects below $250,000, 7 above $500,000, and 12 in between.
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Gaps in Highway Research 49 unexpected on a road segment only about 8 years old. The highway's design life was 20 years, and a radical rehabilitation should not have been necessary for several years after that time.
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50 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS of distinctly autonomous steps, each managed by a different organizational unit. In such instances, each step in the process either depends blindly on the successful completion of earlier steps in the process or specifies, often through rigid standards, certain conditions that must be met at previous stages.
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Gaps in Highway Research 51 American Concrete Institute (ACI) , the Asphalt Institute and many other professional and trade groups that highlight apparent coordination difficulties and use their broader organizational bases to develop solutions Such grass roots coordination has been and should continue to be a key mechanism for integrating the activities of the diverse organizations involved in providing highways.
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52 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS of each of these different conditions would permit meaningful comparisons. Such coordination would greatly improve the transferability of results achieved by the present bottom-up system.
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Gaps in Highway Research 53 information that will improve understanding of highway safety and help identify the parts of the system most amenable to improvement. State programs have also given top priority to safety.
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54 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS to make progress; other research activities must continue. Nevertheless, the six areas given below stand out as promising large potential payoffs but large-scale investments will be required to achieve that potential.
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Gaps in Highway Research 55 maintenance research is substantial: further mechanization, improved repair materials, off-site prefabrication, or more efficient staffing and scheduling could all yield substantial savings. Protection of concrete bridge components.
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56 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS ways during winter storm periods. First, the storing, handling, applying, and controlling of salt offer many opportunities for improvement; and research should be directed at improved chemical-management techniques.
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TABLE 12 Assessment of High-Priority Highway Research Areas Cement and Long-Term Maintenance Protection of Concrete in Chemical Pavement Cost- Concrete Bridge Pavements and Control of Asphalt Performance Effectiveness Components Structures Snow and Ice Probability of a big payoff High High High High Medium High Has research on this topic been - neglected in recent years? Yes Yes Yes No Yes Possibly Degree to which organizational barriers now impede research High High Medium Low High Low Likelihood that research findings will be usable High High High High High Medium Scale of effort required for suc- cessful project Large Large Small Large Medium Medium Does the research require greater unity of effort, now splintered?
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100 90 80 70 60 I- z 50 ILl 40 30 20 10 0 1962 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 YEAR FIGURE 3 Distribution of total highway disbursements, 1962-1982 (6)
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Gaps in Highway Research 59 TABLE 13 Comparison of Past and Expected Future Federal-Aid Capital Spending (7)
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PART II Potenti* Promising Areas of Research
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4 Asphalt Objective: To improve pavement performance through a research program that will provide increased understanding of the chemical and physical properties of asphalt cements and asphaltic concretes. The research results would be used to develop specifications, tests, and construction procedures needed to achieve and control the pavement performance desired.
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64 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS position of asphalt, caused in part by disruptions in world oil supplies, may contribute to those problems. The physical tests and specifications used to classify and control asphalt, some dating from more than 70 years ago, do not always control closely the performance of this material.
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Asphalt 65 Because asphalt is one of the largest components of highway construction, improved asphalt pavements offer a large potential saving. Improved asphalt cements, which appear to be a key to achieving these savings, leverage the savings on the total pavement system.
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66 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS sociation engaged in asphalt technical assistance and research, had its budget cut from $4 million in 1981 to $3.2 million in 1984. As a result of economic slowdowns in the early 1980s, asphalt handling and paving equipment manufacturers discontinued most of their research on asphalt.
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Asphalt 67 Activities in this type of research fall far short of determining which chemical mixes are most appropriate in highway application and which products have those properties. Answers to such questions could save hundreds of millions of dollars, but the current understanding of asphalt cement is so inadequate that these savings elude us.
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68 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS ardized way to translate complicated engineering knowledge and research results into specifications and bidding requirements. Such procedures are essential to the smooth operation of the nation's highway industry, which involves thousands of agencies and hundreds of thousands of suppliers.
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Asphalt 69 analyses, and procedures to identify fully those more durable, robust. asphalts.
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70 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Is such an ambitious research effort worth it? How much might it cost?
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Asphalt 71 asphalt at each of the various stages of production can control or specify what happens at other stages. The asphalt pavement industry includes petroleum companies, refiners, mixing plant operators, road contractors, and various levels of government.
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72 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Long-term retention'of adhesion; Flexibility under low temperatures and over a long service life of exposure to atmosphere, sunlight, dust, moisture and traffic; and Recyclability. National Policy The value of a carefully focused, integrated approach to research will increase in future years because several recent legislative actions have intensified the demands that will be placed on the asphalt industry and increased the size of the federal highway program to deal with this and other needs.
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Asphalt 73 changing, thereby adding to the uncertainty about how best to use it. Asphalt is changing because of shifts in where refiners get their crude oil as well as the introductionof new refining processes.
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74 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS States have adjusted ingeniously to the limitations of current product specifications by modifying specifications and testing procedures to offset known variations in certain sources of asphalt. In spite of such ingenuity, shifts in product sources and refining processes together introduce many potential variations in product performance.
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Asphalt 75 of the mix design, the pavement (cross section) design, the aggregates, the batch plant operations, the paver operations, and the traffic and environmental condition under which the pavement serves.
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76 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS ods to identify the characteristics of asphalts. The investigations would be used to develop totally new tests that are not tied to colligative properties of asphalt to determine the physical characteristics of asphalts and that would reflect the more realistic temperature ranges of asphalts in the field.
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Select analytical methods for characterizing asphalt cement Select representative asphalt cements Select lab tests of pavement performance Study methods to I Develop tests and Conduct analysis of control and improve I specs for better asphalt cements asphalt cement asphalt cements characteristics Conducab tests 1 Monitor and evaluate of -pavement performance on test F performance sections Select aggregates for test pa+ements Design and build test sections Identify required full-scale field test pavement sections FIGURE 4 Elements and relationships of design for asphalt cement experiments.
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78 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Petroleum industry responses to new product demands; Chemical industry responses to new product attributes; Equipment manufacturer responses to new processes, procedures, and material handling requirements; and Road contractor responses to new processes, procedures, tests, and specifications. Key incentives to private industry would be Markets for newly designed products, Retained markets under new standards and specifications, and Responsive procurement procedures.
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Asphalt 79 REFERENCES G.S. Triplett.
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5 LongTerm Pavement Performance Objective. Increase pavement life by the investigation of long-term performance of various designs of pavement structures and rehabilitated pavement structures, using different materials and under different loads, environments, subgrade soils, and maintenance practices.
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Long-Term Pavement Performance 81 over a 10- to 20-year period could provide solutions to many costly problems that are currently unresolved. The interaction of maintenance and repair programs with pavement performance needs to be studied.
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82 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS rehabilitation of pavements but also to the equitable allocation of costs to highway users. PROGRAM EVALUATION Big Payoffs A better understanding of pavement performance through research could have an important impact on the total cost of replacing and rehabilitating the nation's highway infrastructure, which is estimated to be between $1 trillion and $3 trillion.
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Long-Term Pavement Performance 83 TABLE 14 Benefits Derived from Increased Pavement Life Estimated Current Additional Percent Savings Annual Program Performance Life Gained Lifetime Cost in Present Val- Savings in Present Life (Years) (Years)
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84 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS statistical analysis of the important variables observed. There also would be, however, significant payoffs in the intermediate period and even in the short-term.
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Long- Term Pavement Performance 85 precursors of the long-term results but would provide less confidence than would be gained over a 15- to 20-year period. Short-Term Payoff An early payoff could result in the first 5 years of this project from the comparison and selection of the design, construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance methods that would be applied to the test sections.
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86 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS It is essential that a direct and continuous program be established if this initiative is to be successful over the long term. The FHWA pilot study monitoring program and selected observations of test sections in satellite environmental studies carried out by 19 states are the only significant work in this area at the present time.
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Long-Term Pavement Performance 87 1956 initiated efforts to design and construct the 41,000-mile Interstate highway system. Early designs for these pavements were based largely on empirical methods such as the California Bearing Ratio test and related design methods.
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88 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS AASHO Road Test results to other climates, longer time and traffic periods, and a wide variety of subgrade conditions. Out of the data and the capabilities developed in the road tests and provided to pavement design engineers and maintenance engineers have emerged the principles used to manage major networks of highway pavements.
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Long-Term Pavement Performance 89 organizational, and economic effort and coordination to achieve the results. The technology currently exists to carry out the studies needed.
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90 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS of time. The problem involves geography, administration, time, and general understanding of the theory and analysis techniques involved.
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Long-Term Pavement Performance 91 many lives and dollars. Improved pavement performance has several important direct impacts on safety.
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Long- Term Pavement Performance 93 ments or by special construction. This subject has been treated at length in other studies that can be used as a basis foi this experiment with relatively modest additional development (7, 8)
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94 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Pavement recycling agents and recycling techniques; New pavement materials that offer promising improvements in pavement performance, such as polymer concrete, sulfex, and sulphur asphalt; and Pavement sealers, patching mixtures, and other pavement maintenance materials and processes. PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION An advisory task force should be established to outline the research objectives in detail before the study is undertaken.
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Long-Term Pavement Performance 95 report should be produced in the first 2 years designating (a) the experiment design, (b)
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96 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS $2 million per year, this implies a total cost of about $10 million per year. In summary, the estimated funding requirements are Year 1 to 5 Part I, Initiation $25 million Part II, Construction $25 million Year 6 + Part III, Monitoring $10 million per year The proposed long-term pavement performance research represents an investment of about $10 million per year, and promises to yield an annual saving in paving programs that is almost 40 times greater than the investment.
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6 Maintenance Cost-Effectiveness Objective: To improve the cost-effectiveness of maintenance through research that will provide technological improvements in equipment, materials, and processes and will improve the administration of maintenance programs in the areas of budget development, program management, and resource allocation. INTRODUCTION National attention, resources, and interests are being directed toward the problems of restoring and protecting streets and highways.
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98 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS emphasis on this important research. Third, maintenance is a perpetual activity that demands attention and resources on a continuing basis -- long after the excitement and financial commitments given to building a new facility have faded from public view.
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Maintenance Cost-Effectiveness 99 A third major influence on maintenance costs is the effect of inflation on labor, materials, and equipment. Maintenance is a labor-intensive activity, and labor is sensitive to inflation even though labor rates in public agencies tend to lag behind the rate of inflation in the national economy.
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100 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS have been incorporated in the FCP and the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) for current or future consideration, but no clear, continuing commitment at the required level of support is yet evident.
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Maintenance Cost-Effectiveness 101 Usable Findings Because maintenance encompasses a varied program of processes and resources, the research program also should address a variety of areas for improvement. Although areas such as improved pavement patching are more promising than others (such as silent concrete pavement cutting)
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102 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Greater Integration of Effort Current programs are fragmented as well as inadequately funded, and the probability of making a major contribution to national needs is low under the present organizational structure. Although there are many maintenance tasks, tools, materials, equipment, and procedures that lend themselves to small, independent research efforts, there are several major maintenance research needs that require a single, coordinated, comprehensive research effort to achieve results.
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Maintenance Cost-Effectiveness 103 of maintenance effort required to yield the greatest service life return per maintenance dollar expended has not been adequately researched. Also, the influence of new vehicle sizes and weights on the relationship between pavement service life and maintenance effort requires study.
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104 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS devices and procedures at maintenance work sites. FCP studies completed in this problem area have included the preparation of a twovolume supplement to the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices to be used as a guide in setting up work site traffic controls and a report on breakaway barricades.
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Maintenance Cost-Effectiveness 105 Comparative analyses are needed to evaluate the responsiveness and cost-effectiveness of contract maintenance, to identify the areas and activities best served by contractors, and to establish practical processes for contract administration. The performance indicators developed from these analyses would help management to optimize the blend of force account and contract activities in a balanced program.
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106 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS itself to contract research in the developmental phase and demonstration or training programs through state highway agencies (with contracts for support services by private agencies, as required) in the implementation phase.
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7 Protection of Concrete Bridge Components Objective: To prevent the deterioration of chloride-contaminated concrete components in existing bridges and to protect new, uncontaminated bridge components from chlorides. INTRODUCTION Since 1970 all bridges on the federal-aid system have been inventoried and inspected periodically.
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108 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS categories (2)
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Protection of Concrete Bridge Components 109 PROGRAM EVALUATION Big Payoffs It is estimated that $48.9 billion in current dollars will be required to repair or replace the 253,196 bridges classified as deficient at the end of 1982. Additionally the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
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110 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS activity has been underway and meaningful progress has been made. New designs for bridge decks that promise resistance to reinforcing steel corrosion have been developed under the Federally Coordinated Program of Research and Development (FCP)
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Protection of Concrete Bridge Components 111 umented effectiveness, both federal and state transportation agencies usually are willing to evaluate the materials. Another potential barrier exists when a proprietary material or process has been evaluated successfully and accepted for use on the highway system but cannot be used because of the low-bid, specification-controlled procurement procedures.
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112 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS States, about 250,000 are deficient and about $49 billion will be required to repair or replace them. The magnitude of this problem and-the immediacy of the need for solutions require a prompt, large-scale research effort.
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Protection of Concrete Bridge Components 113 Industry has an opportunity to play a role in the research effort. The need for effective penetrants, sealants, and membranes for bridge concrete has been recognized by industry, and private research and development has produced a number of candidate materials and processes for this purpose'.
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114 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Safety and Environment The deterioration of concrete represents a major safety hazard to highway users. In the late summer of 1983, the Cabin John Bridge carrying 1-495 traffic on the beltway around Washington, D.C., suddenly developed a major deck failure of several feet in diameter in one westbound lane.
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Protection of Concrete Bridge Components 115 Electrochemical removal of salt. A direct electrical current is applied between the top reinforcing steel and an electrode on the concrete surface.
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116 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Preventing Deterioration of New and Uncontaminated Decks An expanded set of options is available to the researcher in studying methods of protecting new concrete. These include alternative materials or coatings for the reinforcing steel and internal or external sealants to prevent penetration of moisture and chlorides into the concrete.
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Protection of Concrete Bridge Components 117 Conduct the data collection and enter the data into computer storage files; Monitor the quality and completeness of the data received; and Evaluate, analyze, and report on the findings at appropriate time intervals. RESEARCH ORGANIZATION Most of the successful research performed on bridge concrete protection has been under the FCP, some by in-house staff of FHWA, some by state agencies using HP&R funds, and some under NCHRP contracts.
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118 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS REFERENCES "Some Relief in Sight for Problem Bridges." Editor's Resource, Highway Users Federation, July 8, 1983. Transportation Infrastructure Research.
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Cement and Concrete in Highway Pavements and Structures Objective. To improve the economy, versatility, and durability of concrete in highway pavements and structures through an increased understanding of the chemistry of cement hydration and the properties of concrete.
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120 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS About 50 companies produce cement in the United States. Of these about 40 belong to the Portland Cement Association (PCA)
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Cement and Concrete in Highway Pavements and Structures 121 Big Payoff Portland cement represented 6.2 percent of total highway construction costs in the1979 federal-aid highway program. Of the $16.5 billion capital outlay for streets and highways in 1979, more than $1 billion was spent for portland cement.
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rn C) TABLE 15 Estimated Annual Accruing Bridge Deficiencies, in 1980 dollars (3)
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Cement and Concrete in Highway Pavements and Structures 123 improvements to decrease energy requirements. Financial support for in-house R&D and that done through the PCA (see Figure 6)
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124 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS In testimony before the House Committee on Science and Technology (4) , William J
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Cement and Concrete in Highway Pavements and Structures 125 structural members. This may be achieved by applying or modifiying existing technology to this specific need.
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126 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS challenges, and to advance the quality, reliability, and utility of this basic building material. The physical and chemical instrumentation available and required for a major research effort is extremely costly and currently scattered among a few well-funded research organizations.
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Cement and Concrete in Highway Pavements and Structures 127 of the United States (see Figure 7) , other options will have to be eva!
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128 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS The deterioration of existing concrete under wear and environmental stresses does not usually result in structural failures except in cases of extreme neglect. However, concrete wear and deterioration do cause safety problems that could be eliminated or deferred by research leading to improved durability of concrete.
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Cement and Concrete in Highway Pavements and Structures 129 prove the ability to predict, control, or change the performance of cement and to correlate performance with material properties. The relationship of hydration products to cement paste, to aggregate bond, and to the effects of curing on cement paste structure needs to be studied to improve curing methods.
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130 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS cies, universities, and nonprofit research agencies. The proposed.
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Cement and Concrete in Highway Pavements and Structures.
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9 Chemical Control of Snow and Ice on Highways Objective: To avoid costly deterioration of bridges, pavements, and vehicles and other adverse environmental effects by reducing the dependence on chlorides for snow and ice control; improving mechanical, thermal, and other removal techniques; and producing environmentally safe alternative chemicals. INTRODUCTION The dependence of the nation's economy on the year-around use of the highway system has required highway maintenance forces to battle winter storms with chemical as well as mechanical means of snow and ice control.
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Chemical Control of Snow and Ice 133 PROGRAM EVALUATION Big Payoffs Snow and ice control is a major program for U.S. highway agencies.
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134 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS ing to the substitution of a noncorrosive chemical for rock salt on highways. Such savings are unlikely to be realized, however, even if corrosionfree chemicals are developed.
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Chemical Control of Snow and Ice 135 Organizational Barriers Snow and ice control programs are usually administered at the lowest local organizational level. To minimize response time and address unique local storm conditions, each local municipal government and each district or section of state government is responsible for local operations.
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136 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS The replacement of salt by another chemical capable of snow and ice removal without adverse environmental or corrosive effects faces a major economic barrier. If CMA increases winter maintenance material costs by 20 times and doubles material handling costs, it will require substantial justification in terms of savings from reduced corrosion and environmental benefits.
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Chemical Control of Snow and Ice 137 (epoxy coated re-bars and dense concrete surface cover) on future bridge decks.
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138 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS National Policy Since World War II there has been an unwritten but generally accepted policy that the primary highway system will be kept open throughout all but the most severe winter storms. This policy has been responsible for a steadily increasing use of rock salt and limited use of calcium chloride as a supplemental material for low temperature applications.
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Chemical Control of Snow and Ice 139 of decks and pavements may make such systems economical and practical in the future. Removal.
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140 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS with the added capability that it goes into solution under colder and dryer conditions because of its hygroscopic and exothermic properties. On the other hand the excessive use of salt on pavement surfaces, in some instances, leads to contamination of adjacent streams and ponds due to runoff of the brines.
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Chemical Control of Snow and Ice 141 increase in water supply chloride levels in 16 out of 22 cities that are in areas where salt is used for highway deicing (6)
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142 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Eliminating or substantially reducing environmental pollution and corrosive effects of sodium chloride and calcium chloride by developing CMA or an alternative chemical in a usable, economically feasible form. Reduction in Chemical Use Attempts to control and reduce salt requirements have been made by applying a salt-saturated water solution to the road surface with a modified asphalt distributor.
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Chemical Control of Snow and Ice 143 cab, to position plows for left or right hand casts and for pushing snow across intersections and driveway areas. Some improvement in performance has been achieved through coatings or treatments for plow faces that allow the snow to slide more easily across the face and be cast in windrows at the roadside.
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144 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Ethylene glycol, and Ammonium acetate. The substitutes for salt that have been examined have disadvantages that may be grouped into six types (11)
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Chemical Control of Snow and Ice 145 CMA is effective, and when it ceases to be effective. Further evaluation of CMA's environmental acceptability and examination of whether it is at all corrosive or detrimental to highway structures and motor vehicles is also intended.
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From page 156... ...
10 Alternative Institutional Arringements The strategic transportation research program presented in this report calls for a unique, special-purpose organization. It is an exceptionally large program, but the research would be concentrated in a few specific areas.
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148 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS As will become apparent, these requirements represent an ideal nonexistent organization, and various practical compromises may be necessary. Nonetheless, it is helpful to begin by considering the organizational characteristics that would best serve this major new research program.
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Alternative Institutional Arrangements 149 throughout the project and to become a valuable asset. Understanding of the program objectives, risks, and alternatives by management needs to be developed and retained throughout the program.
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From page 159... ...
150 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Central Management With A Clear Mission An effective central management must be assured under the guidance of appropriate boards and operating committees. The program director should be responsible for achieving designated goals and objectives within his budget.
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Alternative Institutional Arrangements 151 If a new organization is considered, the general requirements and the alternative institutional arrangements need to be studied with a realistic assessment of the political, legal, and economic factors that would influence the chances for successfully creating such an organization. What action is necessary for the organization to be created promptly and effectively?
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AASHTO Executive Committee Task Force Working Committee Staff Director Program Group Administrative Group Program Managers Accounting/Payroll Contracting/Purchasing In-House Research Contract Research Project Managers State DOTs Researchers Universities Implementation Research Centers Consultants Industry FIGURE 8 A proposed AASHTO task force. gram funding.
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Alternative Institutional Arrangements 153 state governments and the highway industry (truckers and materials suppliers) funded or provided valuable services to the to the program.
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154 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS after enactment of the legislation, after which the commission ceased to exist. The commission was authorized to contract with nongovernmental agencies competent to perform research, and $10 million was authorized for appropriations to the commission.
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Controlling Board, Commission, or Council General Management I I I Program Group Program Advisory Council Project Management Teams • State Researchers • Federal Implementation Teams • Industry Contract Research Agencies State DOTs Universities Research Centers Consultants Industry Administrative Group Accounting Purchasing and Contracting Personnel FIGURE 9 Proposed organizational structure for a chartered research agency or study commission. National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP)
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NRC I I AASHTO I I FHWA TRB I I Executive Committee Select Committee STRS on Research I I Committee NCHRP I I STRS FIGURE 10 Concept for modifying NCHRP. Several aspects of the NCHRP process would have to be modified to accommodate STRS.
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From page 166... ...
Alternative Institutional Arrangements 157 Federally Coordinated Program of Highway Research and Development (FCP) Another ongoing research agency that might manage STRS would be the Office of Research Development and Technology of the FHWA.
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Associate Administrator for Research, Development, and Technology Office of Strategic Office of Engineering and Highway Research I I Highway Operations Research Office of Safety and Office of Traffic Operations I I Implementation Asphaltic Materials Division Pavement Performance Division Maintenance Division Bridge Deck Division Cement and Concrete Division 1 Snow and Ice Control Division FIGURE 11 Modifications to FCP organizations to include the strategic highway research program.
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From page 168... ...
Alternative Institutional Arrangements 159 technology. Approximately 60 percent of the research associates at NBS have been sponsored by private industrial companies.
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From page 169... ...
160 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS tration of research funds in a single research center could create problems within the research community, however, and might not meet AASHTO requirements for involvement and control. SUMMARY Special organizational requirements must be considered for the strategic highway research program.
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11 Conclusions and Recommendations 2 /,J- L 's highway system is deteriorating at an accelerating rate. er ears of neg ect ational attention is being directed to the need to maintain, repa1r, preserve this system.
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From page 171... ...
TABLE 17. Overview of Proposed Strategic Highway Research Study Projected Research 5-Year Costs Area - -- Objective ($ million)
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From page 172... ...
Conclusions and Recommendations 163 tional Cooperative Highway Research Program, have made and must continue to make vital contributions to highway technology. A new special research program will have to be structured in careful coordination with and protection for the continuity and health of existing national research programs.
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From page 173... ...
164 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS tinuity throughout the program term, an adequate full-term financial commitment, constituent involvement, effective central control, competent management, and adherence to the clear mission that has been established. Using conservative projections and eliminating those areas where double counting might occur, the potential payoffs from this program could exceed $600 million per year.
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Appendix Steering Committee Biographical Information THOMAS D LARSON, Chairman, is a state transportation administrator.
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From page 175... ...
166 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS such as Co-Speaker of the House, Minority Leader, Transportation Committee Chairman and Secretary, and was the Washington State representative to the Western Conference of State Governments for Transportation. DONALD COLLIER, a corporate research executive, is Senior Vice-President of Corporate Strategy at Borg-Warner Corporation where he was also Vice-President for Research and Vice-President for Technology.
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From page 176... ...
Appendix 167 Plans, and Assistant to Chief Engineer for Planning and Design for the Missouri Transportation Department. His participation in professional organizations has included President of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Executive Committee, National Director of National Society of Professional Engineers, and Chairman of the TRB Executive Committee.
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168 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS DANIEL T MURPHY is a County Executive for Oakland County, Michigan.
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From page 178... ...
Appendix 169 Programs and Deputy Mayor, Seattle 1970-71, and Special Assistant to Senator Henry M Jackson 1971-1972.
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From page 179... ...
The Transportation Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council, which serves the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board's purpose is to stimulate research concerning the nature and performance of transportation systems, to disseminate the information produced by the research, and to encourage the application of appropriate research findings.
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From page 181... ...
Special Report 202 Executive Summary men* caIs Hieghways Accelerating the Search for Innovation TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
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From page 182... ...
1984 TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OFFICERS CHAIRMAN: Joseph M Clapp, Senior Vice President, Roadway Express, Inc., Akron, Ohio VICE CHAIRMAN: John A
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From page 183... ...
Special Report 202 America's Highways Accelerating the Search for Innovation Executive Summary Strategic Transportation Research Study: Highways TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL Washington, D.C.
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From page 184... ...
The complete report of America's Highways: Accelerating the Search forinnovation (price $18.60) is available from the Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C.
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From page 185... ...
STEERING COMMITTEE FOR A STRATEGIC TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH STUDY: HIGHWAYS THOMAS D LARSON, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Harrisburg, Chairman DUANE BERENTSON, Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia DONALD W
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From page 186... ...
Transportation Research Board Staff DAMIAN J KULASH, Assistant Director for Special Projects ROBERT E
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Executive Summary INTRODUCTION At present state transportation agencies have a unique opportunity to make major improvements in the ways they build, maintain, and operate highways. Because of the infrastructure crisis, the public has awakened to its stake in the highway network.
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From page 188... ...
AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Why has not a system so crucial to everyday life, so large (4 million miles) , and so expensive ($1 trillion)
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From page 189... ...
Executive Summary areas to identify the most promising for a national program. Specifically, this strategy involves answering the nine following questions: Will the research yield big payoffs if successful?
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From page 190... ...
4 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS Training requirements, organizational changes, investment in equipment, cash flow requirements, personnel implications, and legal liabilities of new approaches can make or break the acceptance of research findings. Technical research personnel are not necessarily in a position to make these judgments, and, similarly, administrators and political leaders may not be fully aware of the technological options that might be developed.
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From page 191... ...
Executive Summary Does the research respond to new and potential changes in national policy? Because of the immense variety in local materials, building conditions, and topographic features, the strong problem-solving research capability of state agencies is essential.
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From page 192... ...
AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS cused on these research areas could substantially alleviate the biggest, most pervasive problems now faced by the highway industry. Such a research program could be supported if states would allocate one-quarter of 1 percent of their federal-aid highway funds.
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From page 193... ...
Executive Summary 7 Long-Term Pavement Performance The nation will spend about $400 billion replacing and rehabilitating pavements before the end of the century. Not only will the Interstate and primary systems need repair but also state, county, and local highways and city streets will require massive investments in pavement.
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From page 194... ...
AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS arnzation, better repair materials, off-site prefabrication, and more efficient staffing and scheduling could all yield substantial savings. Protection of Concrete Bridge Components An epidemic of bridge deterioration has developed throughout the United States.
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From page 195... ...
Executive Summary Chemical Control of Snow and Ice on Highways All but 7 of the 50 states can count on snow covering parts of their highway systems every winter. Salt was first used on intercity highways for snow and ice control about 50 years ago; by 1982 salt use had grown to 12 million tons a year.
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From page 196... ...
TABLE 1 Assessment of High-Priority Highway Research Areas Cement and Long-Term Maintenance Protection of Concrete in Chemical Pavement Cost- Concrete Bridge Pavements and Control of Asphalt Performance Effectiveness Components Structures Snow and Ice Probability of a big payoff High High High High Medium High Has research on this topic been neglected in recent years? Yes Yes Yes No Yes Possibly Degree to which organizational barriers now impede research High High Medium Low High Low Likelihood that research findings will be usable High High High High High Medium Scale of effort required for suc- cessful project Large Large Small Large Medium Medium Does the research require greater - unity of effort, now splintered?
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From page 197... ...
Executive Summary 11 TABLE 2 A 5-Year Strategic Transportation Research Program Problem Area Annual Expenditure ($ Million) Total Expenditure ($ Million)
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12 AMERICA'S HIGHWAYS A new special project under the Federally Coordinated Program of Highway Research and Development (FCP) ; A modified Research Associate Program under the auspices of the National Bureau of Standards; A university research center or research institute; or A major private research organization.
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From page 199... ...
The Transportation Research Board is a unit of the National Research Council, which serves the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. The Board's purpose is to stimulate research concerning the nature and performance of transportation systems, to disseminate the information produced by the research, and to encourage the application of appropriate research findings.
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Key Terms
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