Beyond Bias and Barriers Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering (2007) / Chapter Skim
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2 Learning and Performance
2 Learning and Performance
Pages 24-49
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From page 24... ...
Attempts to marshal the findings to answer that question have been hampered by three features of the public discussion of women in science. First, the discussion has drawn on research in a highly selective way, emphasizing a small number of measures that show sex differ ences and de-emphasizing both the overlap between men and women on the measures and the large number of measures by which sex differences are small or nonexistent.1 Second, most stud ies of sex differences in average abilities for mathematics and sci ence focus on measures that were designed to predict academic success in high school or college mathematics or science, such as the quantitative portion of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT-M)
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From page 25... ...
These measures, however, have not proved to be predictive of success in later science careers.2 Thus, we can not look to cognitive sex differences to explain the differential success of men and women scientists and engineers.
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From page 26... ...
RECOMMENDATION 2-1. Continued research is needed in elucidating the role of sex and gender in performance, including research on motivation, stereotype threat, and educational programs for improving performance in science and engineering fields.
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From page 27... ...
Now this gender gap in school achievement has disappeared and the relevance of average sex differences as predictors of success in real-world academic science and engineering is debatable. In cognitive studies comparing boys and men with girls and women, the overlap between the sexes is generally large -- usually much larger than
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From page 28... ...
. Stereotypes and steroids: Using a psychobiosocial model to understand cognitive sex differences.
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From page 29... ...
. Gender differences in predictors of college mathematics performance and in college mathematics course grades.
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From page 30... ...
. Mediators of gender differences in mathematics college entrance test scores: A comparison of spatial skills with internalized beliefs and anxieties.
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From page 31... ...
.20 Boys and men perform consistently faster and more accurately on this task, and some argue that this difference gives them an advantage in science, mathematics, and technology.21 Evidence indicates that the difference between men and women on this task may be largely due to stereotype threat (Box 2-4) .22 Furthermore, mental rotation and similar measures of spatial ability have been found to be less effective than verbal skills in predicting achievement in mathematics and science.23 People with strong spatial skills are less likely than those with high verbal skills or high overall intelligence to have earned credentials at every academic level and more likely to work in blue-collar occupations that do not require advanced education.24 Another sex difference has to do with variability: there are more men at both the high and low ends of many cognitive performance distributions.25 18DC Geary (1996)
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From page 32... ...
. Trends in gender differences in academic achievement from 1960 to 1994: an analysis of differences in mean, variance and extreme scores, Sex Roles: A Journal of Research (39)
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From page 33... ...
. Gender differences on the math subset of the scholastic aptitude test may be culture specific.
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From page 34... ...
Instead, the assumption is often made that those who end up in research careers in science, engineering, and mathematics (SEM) are drawn from the top 1-5% of the distribution in mathematics and science talent.a It is precisely at this extreme tail of science and mathematics abilities that sex differences are most evident.
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From page 35... ...
Research re veals that cultural factors mediate this drop in women's performance. Because the conditions that favor stereotype threat are just those required for highest perfor mance on the SAT, it is not surprising that among the highest scorers, SAT scores underpredict the academic performance of women relative to men.
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From page 36... ...
. Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.
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From page 37... ...
BIOLOGY Four types of studies have been used to suggest a biological basis for the differing career outcomes of men and women: brain structure and function, hormonal influences on cognitive performance, psychological development in infancy, and evolutionary psychology. Brain Structure and Function The brains of human men and women show highly similar structure and organization at all points in development.
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From page 38... ...
Hormonal Influences on Cognitive Performance Hormones have received considerable attention as a possible source of sex differences in cognition and behavior. The findings are complex because of failure to replicate numerous reported effects and because hormones can influence both cognitive abilities and their manifestation in performance.
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From page 39... ...
According to one study, testosterone strongly improved the ability of women, and impaired that of men, to do mental rotation, and estradiol impaired women's mental rotation ability.51 Another study, however, found sex differences in spatial and verbal abilities but showed that different levels of testosterone, estradiol, or progesterone had no effect.52 Where impairments are found, their sources could be either cognitive or motivational and social. Motivational and social influences on cognitive test performance are discussed below.
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From page 40... ...
. Sex-typed toy play behavior correlates with the degree of prenatal androgen exposure assessed by CYP 21 genotype in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
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From page 41... ...
Some investigators argue that humans and their ancestors were hunter-gatherers for countless generations and that natural selection would have favored men who had strong spatial skills useful in traveling long distances to locate game and then felling it with spears or arrows. Others argue that because both global and local spatial cues are important for navigation, women, whose food gathering required detailed geographic knowledge and possibly extensive travel, would also have needed to have good spatial ability to find and remember good food sources.62 Some call into question whether hunting and gathering were sex-typed activities.63 In addition to sex differences in cognition, some researchers argue that motivation has clear evolutionary links (Box 2-3)
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Similarly, today's scientists and engi neers have a whole array of typically male characteristics that may or may not enhance the quality of their science. high school and college mathematics and science.
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From page 43... ...
Evidence indicates that parents and others interpret baby boys' and girls' characteristics and behavior -- even when they are identical -- as reflecting qualities consistent with traditional gender roles.66 During childhood, many parents encourage sex differences in behavior and experience -- and therefore possibly in neurobiology -- by treating boys and girls differently, and also by estimating their abilities differently, again in line with gender stereotypes.67 Such treatment can powerfully affect children's own concepts of gender and influence their view of their own talents, especially regarding gender stereotyped endeavors, such as social relations, sports, mathematics, and science, the last of which, according to one study, parents believe boys find easier and more interesting than do girls.68 However, another study found that children with less traditional views of gender roles expressed stronger interest in mathematics. According to a meta-analysis, the effect sizes of the influence of parents' gender beliefs diminished after the mid-1980s, possibly indicating a decrease in gender stereotyping.69 Moreover, the equal 65National Science Foundation (2004)
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From page 44... ...
. Gender differences in interest and knowledge acquisition: The United States, Taiwan, and Japan.
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From page 45... ...
In addition to sex differences in the use of spatial and linguistic problem solving strategies discussed above, research in social psychology provides evidence that women's awareness of negative stereotypes of women in science can undermine their performance in high-stakes, speeded tests of scientific and mathematics aptitude. Stereotype threat re Research 47(3-4)
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From page 46... ...
But if you are a woman or minority-group student trying to excel in science or engineering, there is the added worry that poor performance could be taken as confirmation that group stereotypes are valid. Stereotype threat has been shown to apply to women performing a difficult mathematics test.
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From page 47... ...
. Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women's math performance.
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From page 48... ...
. Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance.
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From page 49... ...
Furthermore, measurements of mathematics- and sciencerelated skills are strongly affected by cultural factors, and the effects of these factors can be eliminated by appropriate mitigation strategies, such as those used to reduce the effects of stereotype threat. Because sex differences in cognitive and neurological functions do not account for women's underrepresentation in academic science and engineering, efforts to maximize the potential of the best scientists and engineers should focus on understanding and mitigating cultural biases and institutional structures that affect the participation of women.
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