Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines for Selected Contaminants Volume 2 (2007) / Chapter Skim
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Appendix 5 Cadmium (Inorganic Salts)
Appendix 5 Cadmium (Inorganic Salts)
Pages 154-263
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From page 154... ...
In the industrial setting, cadmium is used extensively in smelting, batteries, plastics and metal plating, welding, fabric dyes, glass glazes, and the burning of fossil fuels. In the general population, the sources for cadmium exposure are food and water.
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TABLE 5-1 Physical Properties of Inorganic Cadmium and Cadmium Salts Formula Cda CdOe CdSf CdCl2b CdSO4c CdCO3d Chemical name Cadmium Cadmium Cadmium Cadmium carbonate Cadmium oxide Cadmium sulfide chloride sulfate Synonyms Cadmium Cadmium Cadmium Otavite, cadmium Cadmium fume; Cadmium yellow; colloidal dichloride sulfate monocarbonate cadmium monoxide greenockite CAS registry no. 7440-43-9 10108-64-2 10124-36-4 513-78-0 1306-19-0 1306-23-6 Molecular weight 112.41 183.32 208.47 172.42 128.41 144.47 Cadmium (mole 100% 61.2% 53.8% 65% 87.5% 77% %)
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From page 156... ...
Because cadmium is the most common ingredient in zinc coatings and because of the well-known toxicity of soluble cadmium, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) needed to determine the spacecraft water exposure guidelines (SWEGs)
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From page 157... ...
They reported a final retention of 6% of administered cadmium in the monkeys. The results of several studies on absorption of cadmium from single oral bolus studies show that monkeys and humans seem to absorb
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From page 158... ...
. However, in rats administered cadmium at 100 μg/kg, the fractional absorption of cadmium was 10-fold greater (1.1% of the dosage)
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From page 159... ...
After a single oral administration of 115Cd to albino rats 1-26 wk old, the whole-body cadmium retention (measured 1 or 2 wk after dosing) was higher in sucklings than in weaned rats, and retention of cadmium in the kidneys was 5-7 times higher in the sucklings than in older rats (Kostial 1984)
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From page 160... ...
Correspondingly, the uptake of calcium decreases when the ingestion of cadmium is high. Female rats on low-calcium diets exposed to cadmium as CdCl2 at 25 mg/L in drinking water for 1 or 2 mo had accumulated about 50% more cadmium than the rats on a highcalcium diet (Larsson and Piscator 1971)
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From page 161... ...
conducted a study in female rats (SAS:VAF [SD] Charles River rats)
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From page 162... ...
cadmium than it did in rats fed adequate zinc and marginal iron. Cadmium concentration in the duodenum was also 10-fold higher in rats fed diets marginally deficient in zinc and iron compared with rats fed diets containing adequate amounts of these minerals.
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The cadmium-protein complexes are taken up by the liver. After 2-3 d, when plasma cadmium concentrations are low, plasma cadmium is also bound to a low-molecular-weight protein, MT (Norberg et al.
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From page 164... ...
administered a single oral bolus dose of
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From page 165... ...
(1999) , from the same research group, reported the tissue distribution of cadmium in female rats given minimum amounts of cadmium-polluted rice or CdCl2 for 8 mo, indicated the absence of any hepatic or renal lesions at the end of the experiment regimen even at 40 ppm.
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From page 166... ...
In this study the authors also documented that the lack of MT rendered the MTnull mice vulnerable to severe renal toxicity, even though the cadmium concentrations in the kidney of MT-null mice were much lower than in wild-type mice. MT protects against cadmium-induced liver injury as it increased MT binds cadmium in the cytosol, reducing cadmium content in the organelles.
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From page 167... ...
The normal rate of urinary cadmium excretion in humans is about 1 μg/d, and urinary cadmium concentration increases with age. In individuals exposed to cadmium, urinary cadmium excretion and concentration are signs of renal dysfunction.
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From page 168... ...
. Predicted kidney cadmium concentrations of females were higher than those of males: 5.1 mg (3.37.6 mg)
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. TOXICITY SUMMARY A number of toxic effects in humans and animals resulting from cadmium exposures have been reported.
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(1973) calculated the dose that induced vomiting as 0.07 mg/kg (assuming ingestion of 150 mL and body weight of 35 kg for the child)
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Compound Species LD50 (mg/kg ) Cause of Death Cadmium chloride Rat 88 Gastrointestinal hypermotility, diarrhea Mouse 60 Weight loss Guinea pig 63 Not reported Cadmium iodide Rat 222 Not reported Mouse 166 Not reported Cadmium nitrate Rat 300 Not reported Mouse 47 Not reported Cadmium acetate Rat 333 Not reported Source: Data from CCOHS 2006.
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From page 172... ...
Several measurements were made that included mortality; organ and body weight and changes in their relative ratios; several clinical chemistry parameters such as serum enzymes, glucose, proteins, BUN, electrolytes, and hematologic parameters; and urinary parameters such as ketones, glucose, and protein. Gross pathologic examinations were also performed at necropsy (Borzelleca et al.
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From page 173... ...
Three of 10 male rats died within 1 d in the two highest-dose groups, whereas among females, only 2/10 died at the highest dose. One day after the dose was given, the lung-to-body weight ratio in the highest-dose group was significantly higher only in males.
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From page 174... ...
In a rat study, a significant decrease in hemoglobin and a 50% decrease in water intake within 2 wk were reported after young male and female rats were exposed to cadmium at 50 ppm in drinking water (Decker et al.
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From page 175... ...
with 8-10 nucleated red blood cells per 100 white blood cells. The authors reported that in groups treated with cadmium at 0.1-10.0 ppm in water for 1 y, changes in body weight gain and water and food intake were not different from those of controls, nor were any other pathologic changes noted.
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From page 176... ...
In the young rats, the strength was negatively correlated with bone cadmium content but not correlated with kidney cadmium content. This may be because young rats absorb more cadmium than adult and older rats.
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A study of adult male rats exposed to cadmium in the diet (100 ppm/kg diet or cadmium at 9 mg/kg body weight) for 60 d and then tested in a Digiscan activity monitor indicated that cadmium decreased movement and increased rest time (Nation et al.
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were fed a diet containing cadmium as cadmium acetate at 150 ppm for 16 wk. Body weight, blood pressure, and plasma renin were measured at week 2, 4, 8, and 12, and terminally at week 16.
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From page 179... ...
Controls for this study were 133 males and 161 females without exposure to cadmium. -2m in urine was used as an index of the effect of cadmium on health, and the average cadmium concentration in locally produced rice was used as an indicator of cadmium exposure.
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to male Wistar rats fed a diet sufficient or deficient in calcium and studied the renal and skeleton lesions by histology and biochemical measurements 120 d after exposure to cadmium. According to the authors, the daily mean cadmium intake was 0.9 mg/d.
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(1978) conducted a study in female Wistar rats (170-190 g)
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However, they reported focal necrosis of the liver in five out of eight nonpregnant female rats and slight atrophy of glomeruli in two of eight of these female rats (Sutou et al.
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Male Wistar rats were fed diets containing cadmium as CdCl2 at 0.3, 3, 30, or 90 mg/kg for 10 mo (Groten et al.
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(1987) conducted a study to evaluate the chronic effects of single versus multiple oral cadmium administrations on the testes of mature male Wistar rats.
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From page 185... ...
In this study, the author did not look at any parameters except food consumption, body weight changes, and extensive histopathology. Except for a significantly decreased growth rate in the 50 ppm dose group, the author did not find any cadmium doserelated change in benign or malignant neoplasia.
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From page 186... ...
In rats of groups dosed with cadmium at 2-10 mg, a reduction in bone mineral density was seen after the onset of renal toxicity. Significant increases in Pyr and Dpyr -- the bone resorption markers -- were also observed in high-dose groups during the early part of the treatment regimen (Ohta et al.
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From page 187... ...
Some of the studies have been described here. A few studies have measured changes in parameters of immunotoxicity because of cadmium exposure (mostly by inhalation)
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From page 188... ...
(1986) reported that the incidence of viral-induced mortality was lower in male Swiss Webster mice exposed to cadmium sulfate, acetate, or chloride in the drinking water at 3, 30, or 300 mg/L for 10 wk followed by an inoculation of encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV)
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From page 189... ...
Injection of sRBCs 3 wk after experiment cessation revealed no effect on the PFC response. Results demonstrate that effects on humoral immunity observed immediately following cadmium exposure were no longer visible 3 wk following the cessation of exposure.
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orally treated with cadmium vary from decreases, increases, and no changes reported. Cell-Mediated Immunity Several studies have measured cell-mediated immunity to cadmium exposure by determining splenic B and T lymphocyte blastogenesis in response to mitogens.
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that oral cadmium exposure does not produce immunosuppression. Given that only one cadmium dose was examined and that lymphocyte proliferation was the only end point examined, more studies are needed to support the author's conclusion.
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response to sRBC and splenic T-cell proliferative response to BSA were observed in albino Swiss mice exposed to CdCl2 at 100 or 300 ppm in drinking water for 35 d but not in the 30 ppm group (Dan et al.
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(2003) observed that in adult male rats exposed for 1 mo to CdCl2 at 0, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 ppm in drinking water, the Blymphocytes increased with doses of CdCl2 at 5 and 10 ppm in both spleen and thymus, although they decreased at doses greater than 25 ppm.
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(1990) examined cultured peripheral lymphocytes from 21 men and 19 women in China who had been environmentally exposed to cadmium (as judged by urinary cadmium and soil cadmium concentrations)
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Cadmium concentrations as CdCl2 ranging from 0.3 to 5.6 μg Cd/L (Paton and Allison 1972) or cadmium at 0.6 and 6 mg/L (Deknudt and Deminatti 1978)
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came to the following conclusions based on their evaluation of existing data several years ago and has not updated this information: In a study of 292 cadmium production workers who had a mini mum of 2 years of employment between 1940 and 1969, a statisti cally significant excess of deaths from all malignancies and from lung cancer was observed in the entire cohort. In addition, a statisti cally significant excess of deaths from prostate cancer was detected among workers who lived for at least 20 years after the date of first working in a cadmium production facility.
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(1998) concluded that there was no exposure relation between cumulative cadmium exposure and risk of lung cancer.
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From page 198... ...
The authors concluded that, considering the results of the most recent updates, for lung cancer, the relative risk is lower than suggested earlier in the absence of nickel and arsenic and the association between cadmium exposure and prostate cancer was not confirmed. Furthermore, there is no increased risk of cancer for populations environmentally exposed to cadmium (Verougstraete et al.
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From page 199... ...
did not find any change in the incidence of benign or malignant neoplasia in groups of 50 male and 50 female Wistar rats fed CdCl2 in their diet at 1, 3, 10, or 50 ppm for 2 y. A few additional animal studies designed to evaluate noncancer effects of chronic-duration oral cadmium exposure have indicated no dose-related increases in tumors (Fingerle et al.
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From page 200... ...
The authors reported that cadmium did not affect water consumption. Taking body weight into consideration, the doses of cadmium can be calculated as 0, 0.37, 0.75, 1.5, and 3.5 mg/kg/d.
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From page 201... ...
did not find any adverse effect on testicular function, as assessed by the number of pregnancies and number of fetuses per pregnant rat when untreated female rats were mated with male Sprague-Dawley rats that received cadmium at 0, 10, 30, or 100 mg/L via drinking water for 24 wk. In rats exposed to cadmium at 0.001, 0.01, or 0.1 mg/L in drinking water for 30 d, Dixon et al.
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exposed pregnant female rats to cadmium at 60 and 180 ppm (9 and 29 mg/kg/d, respectively) in their drinking water from day 1 to 20 of gestation.
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. Cadmium and Effects on Bone Numerous epidemiologic and experimental studies have been conducted on the effects of cadmium exposure on bone, particularly reduction in bone mineral density.
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. Rats administered cadmium for 60 wk by oral gavage had less bone mineral density in the femur and greater excretion of bone-specific markers in the urine than before they were exposed to cadmium (Ohta et al.
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(2000) evaluated whether long-term low-level cadmium exposure, through environment or occupation, increased the risk of osteoporosis (decreased forearm bone mineral density)
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From page 206... ...
in young female Wistar rats exposed to cadmium at 1, 5, 50, or 100 mg/L in drinking water for 12 mo and determined the above-mentioned parameters at 3, 6, 9, and 12 mo. It was reported that a dose- and time-dependent decrease was observed in bone mineral content (BMC)
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. As described earlier, cadmium exposure has been reported in several investigations to affect bone mineral density.
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From page 208... ...
The study is described in detail elsewhere in this document. The important conclusion from the study is that a decrease in bone mineral density can be observed both before and after the manifestation of renal dysfunction or damage, but the amount of decrease depends on the dose and duration of exposure to cadmium.
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From page 209... ...
However, when kidney tubular damage was seen as early as 10 wk in the 5 mg/kg dose group, no change in bone mineral density or in the excretion of bone markers in the urine was seen, even at 60 wk. It is unrealistic to expect high cadmium concentrations in ISS water, and, at the cadmium concentrations that will be established as ACs for 1,000 d (or more)
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. The values listed were based on ACs for each duration according to Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines (NRC 2000)
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Elinder 1986 Cadmium iodide; Oral ingestion, single Human Fatal dose; died in 7 d; necropsy revealed damage Wisniewskacadmium at 25 dose (acute) to the heart, liver, kidney, and GI tract Knypt et al.
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From page 212... ...
CdCl2; 50 mg/kg once or 5 mg/kg 12, 18, and 30 mo male appearance and behavior were comparable to 1987 once/wk for 10 wk controls; no testicular lesions Gavage; terminated Wistar rats, Several deaths within 3 d; severe testicular Bomhard et al. CdCl2; single dose of cadmium at 100 at 6 mo male necrosis and fibrosis; hemorrhages in testes and 1987 or 200 mg/kg epididymides Gavage (once)
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From page 213... ...
Gavage, 1/d for 10 d Rat, pregnant 25% decrease in body weight; intestinal necrosis, Machemer and CdCl2; cadmium at 1.8, 6.13, 18.4, or hemorrhage, and ulcers; decreased fertility; Lorke 1981 61.3 mg/kg/d (0, 3, maternal toxicity; teratogenic effect (by gavages)
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From page 214... ...
CdCl2; 0, 8, 40, 200, and 600 at 2, 4, 8 mo Dawley rat, 200 ppm group; renal toxicity at 4 mo and ane- 1988 ppm/kg/d female mia and decreased hematopoiesis at 8 mo; reduc tion of cancellous bone in the femur; renal tubular degeneration in 200 ppm group from 2 mo; no renal lesions at 8 mo in 40 ppm group Drinking water, 2-10 Sprague- Urinary excretion of -2m Bernard et al. CdCl2; cadmium at 30 mg/kg/d mo Dawley rat 1988 Gavage, 5 d/wk for 5 Rat, female In offspring, decreased locomotor activity and Baranski et al.
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From page 215... ...
number of implantation sites, resorption, live fetuses/litter, fetal weight, number of corpora lutea) ; changes in teratogenic parameters: induced external malformations, skeletal anomalies, and visceral anomalies No change in hematocrit or hemoglobin; Prigge 1978 CdCl2; cadmium at Drinking water, 90 d SPF Wistar 25, 50, and 100 rats, female decreased serum iron and serum ALP at 25 ppm ppm (or 4, 8 and and higher; 30% increase in protein at 50 ppm and 16 mg/kg/d higher Drinking water, 14 Rat, young Increased kidney and testes weights; increased Cd+2 (salt not Pleasants et al.
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From page 216... ...
glomeruli and hypertrophy of the kidneys; thinning of bone cortex; increased serum urea and ALP Drinking water, 24 Sprague- Decreased water consumption in 30 and 100 ppm Kotsonis and CdCl2; 10, 30, and 100 ppm (0, 1.15, wk; data collected Dawley rats, group at week 1; decreased motor activity at 3 wk; Klaassen 1978 2.92, and 8.51 throughout the male increased protein excretion from week 6 in 30 and mg/kg/d) duration 100 ppm group; focal tubular necrosis by week 24 Drinking water, 6 mo CD mouse Reproductive failure Schroeder and CdCl2; cadmium at 2.5 mg/kg Mitchener 1971 Feed, 2, 4, and 8 mo; Sprague- In the 600 ppm group, at 4 mo, anemia and Mitsumori et al.
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From page 217... ...
consumption in 2 wk; 10 ppm a NOAEL for various effects for 90 d Wistar At 50 ppm, prostatic proliferative lesions, both Waalkes and CdCl2; cadmium at Feed, 77 wk 0, 25, 50,100, and WF/NCr rats hyperplasia and adenomas, were increased Rehm 1992 200 ppm without a clear dose response; cadmium also increased leukemia and testicular tumors in 50 and 100 ppm but not in 200 ppm group; benign interstitial tumors of the testes increased at 200 ppm group Feed, 90 wk Monkey Clinical signs of anemia; pale feces Masaoka et al. CdCl2; 4 mg/kg/d 1994 Feed, 9 y Rhesus Decreased food consumption, body weight, and Masaoka et al.
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From page 218... ...
Wistar rats, At 4 mo, only LDH excretion was found to be Groten et al. 1994 CdCl2; cadmium at Feed, 10 mo 0.3, 3, 30, and 90 male increased in the 90 mg group; however, at 8 and mg/kg 10 mo, not only was there an increase in LDH, other renal enzymes such as NAG and ALP were also found to be increased, which indicates the nephrotoxic effects of cadmium progressed (or became more pronounced)
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From page 219... ...
Feed, 72 wk (18 mo) Wistar rats, No kidney-related adverse effects up to and Bomhard et al.
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From page 220... ...
CdCl2; 5 and 10 ppm; also used 10, adult, and old young rats and not in older rats 1989 20, 40, 80, and 160 ppm for adults and older rats Wistar rats, Renal dysfunction and osteotoxicity; proximal Ohta et al. 2000 CdCl2; cadmium at Gavage, 6 d/wk for 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 60 wk female tubular degeneration; also decreased bone mineral 60 mg/kg density even at 2 mg/kg; in 30 and 60 mg dose groups, effects seen as early as 5 wk -- the effects were time and dose dependent; renal and bone effects occurred at different times Drinking water, 4, Wistar rats Pattern of nephropathy studied; a widespread Gatta et al.
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From page 221... ...
and (3-wk-old) and coagulative necrosis and cytoplasmic adequate in zinc (30 males vacuolation seen in rats fed the zinc-deficient diet ppm)
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From page 222... ...
In general, we have applied a spaceflight factor of 3 for certain effects that are known to be exacerbated by microgravity such as adverse changes of hematocrit or hemoglobin, effects on bone indicative of bone resorption, and dehydration or reduction in water consumption. Low fluid consumption will lead to low urine volume, which will promote renal stone formation (Whitson et al.
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From page 223... ...
(1989) of a dose response for renal effects of cadmium exposure of residents to cadmiumpolluted rice in Japan.
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From page 224... ...
) Gender Model Males Weibull 28.2 0.0011 0.00011 2.75 Males Polynomial 33.4 0.00131 0.000131 3.275 Females Weibull 19.2 0.00075 0.000075 1.875 Females Polynomial 23.1 0.0009 0.00009 2.25 a Multiplying the MRLs with 70 kg nominal human body weight and divide by 2.8 L/d, the NASA nominal water volume, and converting mg to μg.
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From page 225... ...
in 1988 proposed that in the renal cortex, the critical concentration of cadmium that produces renal tubular dysfunction in 10% of the population is about 200 μg/g kidney. The JECFA committee also pointed out that a regular dietary intake of cadmium at 175 μg/man/d (2.9 μg/kg/d)
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From page 226... ...
. Derivation of AC for Various Durations of Exposures Through the Oral Route Numerous studies in the literature have reported toxicity of orally administered cadmium in several animal experiments, but the medium of administration has been quite diverse.
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÷ (10 × 2.8 L/d) = 62.5 mg/L, where 25 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; and 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption.
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From page 228... ...
This drinking water study thus indicates that 10 ppm is the NOAEL for these effects (motor activity and reduction in water consumption)
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From page 229... ...
, where 1.15 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption/d; 3 = spaceflight factor for decreased water consumption; and 10/7 = factor to extrapolate time from 7 to 10 d. Borzelleca et al.
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From page 230... ...
, where 22 mg/kg/d = NOAEL for 4 wk; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption; and 3 = spaceflight factor for bone effects. (No time factor is needed; 4-wk data can be applied directly for 10 d.)
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From page 231... ...
, where 4 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption; and 100 d/90 d = time extrapolation factor. The other study considered for 100-d-AC derivation is the 24-wk drinking water study.
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From page 232... ...
, where 1.15 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; and 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption. Two studies by Pleasants et al.
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From page 233... ...
, where 2.9 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption; and 3 = spaceflight factor for hematologic effects and for bone resorption. The effects on bone are also supported by studies by Ogoshi et al.
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From page 234... ...
, where 0.27 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; and 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption. Wilson et al.
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From page 235... ...
, where 3.33 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 1,000 d/504 d = time extrapolation factor from 72 wk to 1,000 d. Another set of data that were evaluated for the 1,000-d AC for renal-effects calculation is from the Bernard et al.
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From page 236... ...
) = 1.8 mg/L, where 30 mg/kg/d = LOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = LOAEL to NOAEL; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption; and 1,000 d/240 d = time extrapolation factor.
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From page 237... ...
, where 1.6 mg/kg/d = NOAEL; 70 kg = nominal body weight; 10 = species extrapolation factor; 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption; and 1,000 d/660 d = time extrapolation factor from 22 mo to 1,000 d. Hiratsuka et al.
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Forty Wistar rats were exposed to CdCl2 at 16 ppm in drinking water for 4, 16, 40, and 60 wk (estimated dose of 0.75 mg/kg/d)
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÷ 2.8 L/d = 0.036 mg/L or 36 μg/L (rounded) , where 110 μg/d = total acceptable cadmium intake; 10 μg/d = average daily dietary contribution; and 2.8 L/d = nominal water consumption.
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. Therefore, NASA decided that the use of the data from this study to provide a NOAEL and assess cancer risk associated with oral cadmium exposure was not warranted.
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Cadmium (Inorganic Salts) 241 TABLE 5-7 Effect of Cadmium Exposure via Drinking Water on the Incidence of Renal Tumors in Noble Rats Group Size Incidence of Renal Tumorsa Cadmium in Water (ppm)
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LOAEL = 16 Human 10 1 1 1 1.6 -- a -- vomiting; 1973 emetic stimulus Motor activity NOAEL = 25 Rat 1 10 1 62.5 -- -- -- Kotsonis and Klaassen 1977 Reduced urine LOAEL = 25 Rat 10 10 1 1 6 -- -- -- Kotsonis and flow Klaassen 1977 Neurotoxicity: NOAEL = 1.15 Rat 1 10 1 1 -- 3 -- -- Kotsonis and motor activity Klaassen 1977 Reduced water NOAEL = 1.15 Rat 1 10 1 3 -- 0.7 -- -- Kotsonis and consumption Klaassen 1977 Nephrotoxicity NOAEL = 1.1 Rat 1 10 1 1 -- 3 -- -- Borzelleca et al. 1989 Bone strength NOAEL = 4 Rat 1 10 100/90 -- -- -- 9 -- Prigge et al.
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Hematologic NOAEL = 2.90 Rat 1 10 1 3 -- -- 2.5 -- Pleasants et al. and bone 1992, 1993 effects Bone strength NOAEL = 0.70 Rat 1 10 1 3 -- -- 0.6 -- Ogoshi et al.
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From page 244... ...
1982. Teratogenicity, fetal toxicity and tissue concentration of cadmium administered to female rats during organogenesis.
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From page 245... ...
1981. Characterization of the pro teinuria induced by prolonged oral administration of cadmium in female rats.
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From page 246... ...
of cadmium chloride in male and female rats. Gavage and drink ing water.
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2001. Urinary cadmium elimination as a biomarker of exposure for evaluating a cadmium dietary exposure -- biokinetics model.
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1983. Occupational cadmium exposure and renal status.
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From page 249... ...
1978. Increased dietary cadmium absorption in mice and human subjects with iron deficiency.
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1994. Comparison of renal toxicity after long-term oral administration of cadmium chloride and cadmium-metallothionein in rats.
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1994. Immune responses and resistance to viral-induced myocarditis in mice exposed to cadmium.
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1989. Early changes in the tissue distri bution of cadmium after oral but not intravenous cadmium exposure.
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1978. The relationship of metallothionein to the toxicity of cadmium after prolonged oral administration to rats.
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From page 254... ...
2001. Metallothionein-null and wild-type mice show similar cadmium absorption and tissue distribution following oral cadmium administration.
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1984. The effects of oral cadmium exposure on passive avoidance performance in the adult rat.
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From page 256... ...
2002. Low bone density and renal dysfunction following envi ronmental cadmium exposure in China.
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From page 257... ...
2000. Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines.
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From page 258... ...
2004. Marginal nutritional status of zinc, iron, and calcium increases cadmium retention in the duodenum and other or gans of rats fed rice-based diets.
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From page 259... ...
2004. Embryotoxic and long-term effects of cadmium exposure during embryogenesis in rats.
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2000. Assessment of renal toxicity by analysis of regeneration of tubular epithelium in rats given low-dose cadmium chloride or cadmium polluted rice for 22 mo.
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1980b. Toxicity, fertil ity, teratogenicity, and dominant lethal tests in rats administered cadmium subchronically.
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2003. Influence of environmental cadmium exposure on forearm bone density.
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1982. Chronic cadmium exposure: Relation to male reproductive toxicity and subsequent fetal outcome.
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