Effects of TOD on Housing, Parking, and Travel (2008) / Chapter Skim
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Pages 6-28
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From page 6... ...
Whereas the first generations of TOD focused primarily on advocacy and assisting early adopters, now there is increased measurement and understanding of TOD travel outcomes. Some key findings in this literature review include: • Between 1970 and 2000, transit ridership for work trips increased in TOD zones, whereas ridership declined markedly in the metro areas surrounding TODs.
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From page 7... ...
Key findings about station-area office workers include: • Commute mode share: From the survey of those working at 10 predominantly suburban office buildings near California rail stations, on average, around 12% traveled to work via rail transit. This is around five percentage points more than rail's market share for TOD office workers who were surveyed in 1992 (Cervero, 1994)
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From page 8... ...
used similar census data to more thoroughly examine trends in travel behavior and vehicle ownership from 1970 to 2000 for households living in 103 TODs compared with averages for the 12 metropolitan regions where the TODs are located. TODs were defined by using a half-mile radius buffer around selected transit stops.
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From page 9... ...
9.4 8.6 8.4 7.5 -20.0 Denver MSA Average 4.3 6.0 4.2 4.3 0.0 Salt Lake City TOD Average (n=4) 2.4 5.8 3.2 5.0 108.0 Salt Lake City MSA Average 2.2 5.0 3.1 3.0 36.0 TOD Average 9.9 8.2 7.6 -9.0 MSA Average 8.3 4.2 5.1 3.8 3.8 -9.0 Total TOD Average (n=103)
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From page 10... ...
13.4 6.3 7.9 5.5 -59.0 Denver MSA Average 7.8 6.4 4.9 3.1 -60.0 Salt Lake City TOD Average (n=4) 12.9 8.0 6.9 7.1 -45.0 Salt Lake City MSA Average 6.5 5.7 4.5 2.3 -65.0 TOD Average 18.3 13.9 13.4 10.2 -44.0 MSA Average 7.5 6.6 4.8 3.0 -60.0 Total TOD Average (n=103)
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From page 11... ...
found that the lower auto trip rates could only partially be explained by higher transit use; the TODs had transit mode shares of 16% in the morning peak period and 11% in the afternoon peak, compared to about 5% for the city. After including transit and pedestrian trips to analyze total trips, he still found the TOD trip rates to be lower than the ITE rates.
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From page 12... ...
Since the ITE rates are based on an average from trip counts taken at apartments all across the United States, it is likely that the average household size for the apartments measured by ITE is larger than at The Merrick. Given this likely difference in household size, the lower total trip rate seems reasonable, and highlights the fact that current ITE trip generation rates may differ significantly from actual TOD trip rates.
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From page 13... ...
From a transit perspective, connectivity can relate to the number of origins and destinations that can be accessed, the speed of transit service, and/or the frequency of service connecting origins and destinations. Mode choice studies of TOD residents and office workers typically show that transit travel times and their comparison to private car travel times is the strongest predictor of transit ridership.
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From page 14... ...
As would be expected, improved transit service levels makes transit more convenient to use and improves transit ridership. Services may be so frequent that riders don't need schedules, and frequent service provides more flexibility regarding departure and arrival times.
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From page 15... ...
. While other studies have estimated much higher ridership impacts attributable to development density, these studies typically did not use control variables to hold the extraneous 15 Source: Dittmar and Ohland, 2004 TOD Type Urban Downtown Office Center Urban Entertainment Multiple Family Retail > 60 units per acre High Hub of regional system <10 minutes Urban Neighborhood Residential Retail Class B Commercial > 20 units per acre Medium access to downtown Sub regional hub 10 minutes peak 20 minutes off peak Suburban Center Office Center Urban Entertainment Multiple Family Retail > 50 units per acre High access to downtown Sub regional hub 10 minutes peak 20 minutes off peak Suburban Neighborhood Residential Neighborhood retail Local Office > 12 units per acre Medium access to suburban center Access to downtown 20 minutes peak 30 minutes off peak Neighborhood Residential Neighborhood retail > 7 units per acre Low 25-30 minutes Demand responsive Land Use Mix Minimum Housing Density Regional Connectivity Frequencies Table 1.9.
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From page 16... ...
Lund, Cervero, and Willson found that the only neighborhood-design variable that explained commuting transit ridership among TOD residents was street connectivity at the trip destination. Once controlling for the influences of factors like travel time and transit accessibility, no attributes of walking quality or land-use composition in the neighborhoods of TOD residents had a significant impact on transit mode choice.
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From page 17... ...
Transit travel times, which tend to be short when transit enjoys high connectivity, are far stronger predictors of rail usage for TOD commuters than land-use, urban-design, and demand-management variables. Based on standardized model coefficients, the predictive power of transit travel-time variables tends to be two- to three-times greater than land-use and policy-related variables, and based on modal travel time differences many travel models can predict transit ridership at TODs reasonably well.
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From page 18... ...
as including TOD add explanatory power to a base travel model for non-work trips? In the Portland travel models, an urban design variable that captures the number of retail businesses, households, and street intersections within a half mile of each zone is currently used to estimate nonwork trips.
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From page 19... ...
While the factors listed above -- transit service levels and parking management -- strongly influence transit ridership, service enhancements and parking programs usually have not been introduced explicitly for the purposes of increasing ridership at TODs. In the transit planning literature, there is a large body of research on what strategies are the most effective in generating increased transit ridership.
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From page 20... ...
Numerous studies found that transit ridership increases when parking charges are implemented, and transit agencies and local governments try to affect these too. Mildner, Strathman, and Bianco (1997)
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From page 21... ...
The H-27 team estimated that replacement parking strictures affect at least one third of TOD settings. This has proven to be a major obstacle to TOD implementation on transit agency owned parking lots.
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From page 22... ...
Examples of motivators may include the quality of schools, access to jobs, housing affordability, presence of transit services, neighborhood services and amenities, and community perception. Key Conclusions • The majority of TOD residents along new transit systems are childless singles or couples.
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From page 23... ...
: • Youth: The age structure of station-area residents was younger than that of the surrounding city; 62% of respondents were age 18 to 35. • Minorities: Because of a large affordable housing and redevelopment component, relatively higher shares of ethnic 23 Project Transit Mode TOD Type Demographic Snapshot The Pearl District, Portland, OR Streetcar Urban Downtown High income, retiring seniors, childless urban professionals, limited lower income units by developer agreement Mockingbird Station, Dallas, TX Light Rail Urban Neighborhood 30-45 year old professionals who can afford to own but prefer to rent The Cedars, Dallas, TX Light Rail Urban Neighborhood Lofts occupied by young professional couples and empty nesters Center Commons, Portland, OR Light Rail Urban Neighborhood Mixed income by design, 75% earn less than $25,000, seniors housing Village Green, Arlington Heights, IL Commuter Rail Suburban Center Empty nesters and childless professionals "Triangle TOD," La Grange, IL Commuter Rail Suburban Center Over 50 empty nesters, under 30 professionals with no kids Market Square Townhomes Elmhurst, IL Commuter Rail Suburban Center Long term local residents seeking smaller easy to maintain properties in town (likely empty nesters)
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From page 24... ...
In Miami and Denver, the percentage of foreign born population is slightly higher in the region than the TODs. Generalizing about TOD income levels is more difficult than drawing conclusions about household size and lifestyle types.
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From page 25... ...
found that at the Center Commons TOD, 30% of respondents owned fewer cars than they did at their previous residence, and that 37% of respondents did not own any car, as shown in Table 1.16. At The Merrick TOD, as shown in Table 1.17, only 8% of residents have no vehicle available, and 73% of households said moving to this place had no impact on the number of vehicles owned.
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From page 26... ...
Furthermore, those seeking transit access to shops or services live an average of 1.8 miles closer to a rail stop. However, proximity to transit for nonwork activities is likely a minor factor in residential location choices.
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From page 27... ...
. These studies show that good transit access is a primary factor in residential location decisions, consistent with studies that find high rates of self-selection among TOD residents.
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From page 28... ...
In Washington, D.C., while there have not been statistically rigorous studies of the impact of transit access on property values, market studies establish the premium for rental properties at about 7%. This means that for a project well served by transit, rents can be 7% higher than comparable properties not so well located.
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