Crew Size and Maritime Safety (1990) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
3. Managing the Human Factors Aspects of Change
3. Managing the Human Factors Aspects of Change
Pages 37-58
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 37... ...
If inappropriate changes are made, or if the macrosystem in which the ship system is enmeshed constrains appropriate changes, then simply reducing crew size is likely to have unintended or undesirable effects that result in a reduction in safety. Undesirable human factors effects are especially likely under these circumstances (e.g., see DeGreene, 1973~.
|
From page 38... ...
Work Hours and Fatigue There are no universally accepted standards defining maximum or permissible work hours for shipboard personnel. Some European national authorities do have written standards setting work hour limitations for vessels in their national fleets (International Transport Workers' Federation, 1990~.
|
From page 39... ...
The U.S. Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, New York, in the past has offered students the opportunity for dual licenses in both deck and engine specialties, but these intensive programs have attracted fewer and fewer enrollees, largely because
|
From page 40... ...
They also tend to focus on the expected event, often missing the unexpected when it happens (Hockey, 1986~. In one of the few shipboard experiments to document fatigue effects related to sleep loss, a two-year study conducted on German vessels found that the standard three-watch system (four on, eight oi~\upsets crew members' circadian rhythms and deprives them of sleep (tow 'et al., 1987~.
|
From page 41... ...
The Impact of Automation 4~7 Highly automated ships with smaller crews will place new demands on crew members. When automation is poorly designed or crews inappropriately or inadequately trained, the result can be increased boredom, fatigue, and stress.
|
From page 42... ...
Kristiansen, Renswick, and Mathisen (1989) found improved track-keeping and watchkeeping skills in experiments aboard seven Norwegian ships outfitted with highly automated bridges equipped with decision aids.
|
From page 43... ...
Kristiansen, Renswick, and Mathisen (1989) also studied single-handed bridge operations, and found watch officers generally satisfied with the bridge configuration, workload, and levels of stress, and with the absence of a lookout.
|
From page 44... ...
On cargo vessels running experimentally with very small crews, scheduling pressures and minimal crew size means that shore leave is nearly nonexistent. On one Europe-to-North America run by a Swedish container ship, crew members stay aboard ship for the entire 28-day round-trip voyage in the company of as few as 15 shipmates, including officers.
|
From page 45... ...
The design process is complex and subtle; the penalty for failure can be very high. MANAGING THE HUMAN FACTORS ASPECTS OF CHANGE As Iloted in this chapter, much additional human factors research is needed to clarify the human factors implications of technological change in the maritime industry.
|
From page 46... ...
This systems assurance must be verified as a part of the authorization for reduced shipboard manning if safety is to be preserved. Function and task analysis methods can be adapted to assist in this purpose; a functional analysis model developed by this committee is described in Chapter 4.
|
From page 47... ...
Chapter 4 describes a functional task analysis model developed by the committee, which could be used by operators and regulators to ensure the appropriate allocation of tasks aboard ship as new technology is adopted. Shipboard Living Conditions Careful ergonomic attention to the design of living areas can enhance living conditions and improve social interaction of crew members.
|
From page 48... ...
In most advanced shipping nations of Asia and northern Europe, both officers and unlicensed personnel are trained in the broad technical skills demanded by evolving technology and crowing practices. In the United States, by contrast, most formal training still reflects traditional departmental divisions of labor (enforced by law)
|
From page 49... ...
and riding crews (Krinsky, 1989~. Some shipping companies are already beginning to undertake their own training programs to broaden crew members' skills in response to new technology (American President Lines, 1989b)
|
From page 50... ...
The Federal Republic of Germany The German shipping industry provides another illustration of training that may be required. In 1987, building on shipboard experiments conducted on vessels operated by Hapag-Lloyd AG, the industry shifted all programs for unlicensed personnel to general purpose training, eliminating separate deck and engine training.
|
From page 51... ...
Since 1965, for example, the Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, New York, has offered students the opportunity to quality for dual licenses in both deck and engine specialties. The intent of these intensive programs was to train officers highly skilled in both deck and engine specialties who could serve in either capacity.
|
From page 52... ...
As a response to changing technology and management practices, the academy has instituted a pilot program to qualify ship operations officers for highly automated ships with control functions centralized on the bridge. Officers in the future, it is thought, will be in charge of entire ships- engines, navigation and communications, and management rather than specializing in traditional departmental responsibilities.
|
From page 53... ...
Both deck officers and engineers received special training (American President Lines, 1989b)
|
From page 54... ...
Some companies and their unions have already negotiated agreements calling for successful completion of courses attesting to such additional skills as conditions of employment (American President Lines, 1990~. The advance of shipboard technology will tend to render skills obsolete as time passes, unless crew members receive new training or maintain their skills on the job.
|
From page 55... ...
However, the past 30 years does provide one significant example of technological change that has reduced work hours, lessened fatigue and boredom, and improved the quality of work life for seagoing personnel, while at the same time lowering manning requirements and operating expenses. This change involved the transition from essentially manually operated power plants to the fully automated, process-controlled power plants of today.
|
From page 56... ...
American President Lines.
|
From page 57... ...
Paper presented at Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineem Ship Operations Management and Economics Symposium, September 1987. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
|
From page 58... ...
1988. Work at sea: A study of sleep, and of circadian rhythms in physiological and psychological functions, in watch keepers on merchant vessels (II.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.