Impact of Science and Technology on Regional Economic Development An Assessment of National Policies Regarding Research and Development in the Context of Regional Economic Development (1969) / Chapter Skim
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Characteristics of R&D—Incorporation of Science and Technology into the Economy
Characteristics of R&D—Incorporation of Science and Technology into the Economy
Pages 31-42
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From page 31... ...
Technology consists of codified and reproducible ways of doing things; much of this is based on systematic theoretical knowledge, i.e., science, but some is based on codified experience, i.e., technological "know-how." Thus, technology includes any tool or technique, any product or process, or 31
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From page 32... ...
In some cases, the immediate objective of applied science may not be a specific device or process but, rather, better understanding of a field very closely related to technology; it would probably not be worth undertaking purely for the sake of intellectual curiosity. Alternatively, new developments frequently require new details of knowledge or conceptual structure that can be produced by scientific research techniques.
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From page 33... ...
The dynamics of the "system" of scientific advance have relied very heavily on an elaborate system of public documentation, with strong sanctions operating on the individual scientist to make full use of and give proper credit for previous work relevant to his own. Discovery and innovation within science have extremely rapid diffusion times, and the rate of diffusion is influenced to only a minor degree by political and organizational boundaries.
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From page 34... ...
Furthermore, it is hard to predict whether a given increment of new knowledge will be useful to the institution or agency that sponsored it; it may, indeed, be of greater value to another, perhaps competing, institution. For these reasons, although basic scientific research can be viewed as having collective product values for the nation as a whole or for a program with national scope, it is unrealistic to think in terms of supporting a given scientist on the basis of the practical value of his "research product." It is for these reasons that institutions that support science typically recognize as *
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From page 35... ...
Not only does the research activity relate in a direct way to the education of graduate students but also to the continuing education of professors and, less directly, to undergraduate education. Similar process values provide an economic justification for basic research in industry; for example, an ongoing research program constitutes an excellent way of recruiting and developing technical talent for future leadership roles.
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From page 36... ...
To reduce the uncertainties inherent in new processes or techniques, the prime contractor frequently takes several technological approaches in parallel. As contrasted with research, applied programs draw upon a variety of disciplines, the particular requirements being imposed by the nature of the problem.
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From page 37... ...
However, since the turn of the century and, particularly, in the past few decades, the more distinctive the new product or process, the more likely it is to have originated in the applied research or development laboratory. Scientific understanding as well as a knowledge of the cutting edge of technological advance is increasingly essential to the inventor, particularly in the sophisticated areas of modern technology.
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From page 38... ...
Not infrequently, inventions emerge directly from science or result from scientific discoveries or from instrumentation originally developed to improve scientific measurements. However, the application of science to technology and the utilization of science, particularly for economic purposes, increasingly depend upon institutions and attitudes that are different from those necessary for the creation of science.
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From page 39... ...
The individual innovator or entrepreneur must seek and obtain financial backing; he must be persuasive in changing traditional viewpoints and in overcoming inertia -- frequently in the form of bureaucratic concerns about making "mistakes." Thus, the term innovation involves activities that are often different from invention, but in which creative ingenuity in dealing with a wide variety of issues is called for; the technological entrepreneur must understand not only the technology with which he is dealing but also the society into which he must introduce the new idea. The term technology transfer has been used to describe processes by which a successful development of technological know-how built up in one institution is embodied in a way of doing things by other institutions or groups.
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From page 40... ...
Increasingly, the vertical transfer of new technology has been accompanied by horizontal technological transfer, even involving major new technologies such as the computer. Frequently, vertical technological transfer is aided by the contributions of small companies, often sub-contractors, which specialize either in hardware components or sub-assemblies or in technological software.
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From page 41... ...
The "applications engineer" is a relatively recent addition to the field of marketing; his activities are devoted to finding new applications for recently developed products. Certain high-technology industries, particularly those engaged in scientific instrumentation or high-speed computers, represent a relatively small fraction of the total gross national product in annual sales.
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From page 42... ...
Obviously the various transfer processes do not operate independently of each other; an effective program or strategy for increasing the rate of transfer would need to combine a number of mutually supportive elements. With respect to technologically backward regions, it would appear that there are deficiencies in horizontal transfer, particularly as implemented by the movement of persons skilled in advanced technology.
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