Biotechnology An Industry Comes of Age (1986) / Chapter Skim
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Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology: An Overview
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology: An Overview
Pages 1-13
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During the past 15 years, researchers have begun to acquire a new and unprecedented degree of control over the genetic constitution of living things. The techniques of genetic engineering, and in particular recombinant DNA, have made it possible to manipulate genetic material on the smallest possible scale -- individual genes.
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molecular biology, immunology, and other scientific disciplines has been little short of revolutionary. Says Douglas Costle, former administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, "While it is probably true that physics was the science of the first half of the century, it is almost certain to be molecular biology in what remains of this century and well into the next." The development of genetic engineering has been a direct result of generous governmental funding for basic biomedical research since World War II, and it is this research that has benefited most immediately from the new techniques.
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It is now possible to move genetic material in a functional form from one organism to another, creating genetic constructs that have never before existed in nature. For instance, the gene that produces a protein in a human cell can be isolated and inserted into a bacterium.
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Requests for field tests of genetically engineered organisms are already beginning to be made, as companies proceed with their research programs. The first authorized human gene therapy experiments are expected to be conducted later this year.
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The ability of genetically engineered microorganisms to produce valuable chemical compounds will also lead to applications in many other industries, including the food processing, chemicals, and energy industries. Among the numerous substances whose production could be affected by biotechnology are alcohol, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, high-grade oils, adhesives, and dyes.
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Furthermore, genetically engineered microorganisms will be used to produce feed additives, growth enhancers, and other compounds that will boost agricultural yields. But biotechnology has a fundamentally different capability in agriculture.
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The first attempts at human gene therapy will involve the insertion of genes into bone marrow cells extracted from patients with severe genetic disorders. The transformed bone marrow cells will be reinserted into the patient's body, where, if the procedure is successful, they will multiply and alleviate the patient's disease.
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Nevertheless, this fear has helped generate a valuable public dialogue about the capabilities of human gene therapy -- a dialogue that should continue as the science evolves. The Release of Genetically Engineered Organisms into the Environment Another issue that has generated considerable public discussion in recent years has been the approach of the first field tests of genetically engineered organisms in the environment.
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regulates pesticides, hazardous chemicals, and pollutants and plans to oversee the release of certain genetically engineered organisms into the environment.
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Public trust could also be fostered through a comprehensive and trustworthy program of public education that clearly lays out both the benefits and the risks of biotechnology. The New Biotechnology Firms Two types of firms are pursuing the commercialization of genetic engineering in the United States: small entrepreneurial firms founded almost exclusively since 1976 specifically to capitalize on research developments in genetics, and established multiproduct firms in traditional industrial sectors such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, energy, agriculture, and food processing.
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In 1980 the Supreme Court ruled that a genetically engineered microorganism could be patented. Although it remains unclear if higher organisms can be patented under similar provisions, this ruling has cleared the way for a wide variety of patent applications and approvals in biotechnology.
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Universities and industry have established a wide variety of cooperative agreements related to biotechnology, including consulting arrangements, industrial associates programs, research contracts, independent research institutes, and private companies affiliated with universities. But at least some of these arrangements involve the possibility of serious conflicts of interest for the researchers and institutions involved.
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Japan has sought to compensate for deficits in disciplines related to biotechnology by retraining Japanese scientists, engineers, and technicians; by sending researchers abroad to study; and by inducing Japanese nationals working abroad to return to the country. It has also drawn upon its extensive historical experience with fermentation techniques in developing production methods in biotechnology.
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