Marine Aquaculture Opportunities for Growth (1992) / Chapter Skim
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Engineering and Research
Engineering and Research
Pages 116-157
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From page 116... ...
Specific opportunities for improving marine aquaculture in these areas include: · new culture systems that make possible the production of marine species in environmentally sound ways; · improved technology for culture operations to utilize inputs more efficiently, increase productivity, and reduce costs of production and waste 116
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From page 117... ...
~ a ~ ~ . - , 1 ~ _ _ 1_ · _ stock and seed/juvenile production from wild populations through achleving controlled reproduction, an understanding of improved nutritional requirements, and better knowledge of species life cycles; · technology to better identify and control disease-related problems; and · technology for the identification of cultured fish in order to differentiate among stocks for marketing and management purposes.
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From page 118... ...
; · developing analytical techniques and computer models to simulate the environmental impact of aquaculture operations (Brune, 1990~; · improving stock sterilization capability that prevents reproduction in cultured animals and prevents genetic dilution of wild stocks from escaped fish; · improving harvest, packaging, and transportation systems to alleviate potential sanitation and public health concerns; and · providing the capability to identify genes that control growth (a capability that has been achieved with nonfish food species)
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From page 119... ...
Key needs are adequate water with adequate oxygen, effective feed and feeding systems for marine species, waste treatment, and sensors and monitoring capability. Expert systems, including computer monitoring and prediction capability, can be very helpful as well.
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From page 120... ...
120 Hatchery Systems MARINE AQUACULTURE The culture of most species requires a hatchery in which to collect, incubate, and hatch eggs and/or rear larval fish and young juveniles. Hatcheries require rigorous controls and careful management.
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From page 121... ...
Of particular importance are nutritional requirements, effective feeding systems, improved efficiency of feed utilization, and alternative protein sources, especially in relation to protein quality and specific requirements during different periods of the life cycle. The larval and juvenile stages of many marine species are relatively small perhaps 2-3 millimeters (mm)
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From page 122... ...
Assessments of the relative fatty acid profiles of farmed and wild fish are already under way, partly as a result of interest in nutritional information (Nettleton, 19901. This information will serve as a guide to the development of "finishing diets" that will provide consumer-ready products with the most nutritionally healthful compositions possible.
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From page 123... ...
Such systems would also provide environmental benefits from reduced waste and water pollution in both the rearing and the effluent receiving waters, including reduced release of additives such as antibiotics. Design parameters that need to be understood include presentation of the food, frequency and rate of feeding, physical properties of feed particles, and impact of feeds and feeding methodology on wastage, growth, feed utilization, and predator species.
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From page 124... ...
Management of this waste may be significantly different from that of fish processing plants because the risk of disease transmission to other cultured fish and to wild fish must be minimized in aquaculture operations. However, it is also essential that processing plants and other facilities take the steps necessary to ensure that diseases are not transferred to wild populations.
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From page 125... ...
For example, oxygen levels fluctuate in response to different internal or external factors, and these variations can stress or even kill the animals if adequate aeration is not provided. When fluctuations are not fatal, unsatisfactory fish health and growth, inefficient feed utilization, and poor reproduction can result (Wyban and Antill, 19891.
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From page 126... ...
Existing automatic systems for continual in situ oxygen measurements are costly to install, require frequent and skilled maintenance, and typically have a short operating life. The marine environment causes rapid deterioration of equipment; metabolic byproducts and other impurities in seawater interfere with the measurement process; and the cost for the multitude of measuring points needed is high.
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From page 127... ...
Production Grow-out Systems Facilities for culturing marine species can be categorized as nearshore (located in coastal waters very close to the shore, i.e., within easy sight of other coastal users) ; onshore (located on land near the ocean or estuaries where seawater can be pumped to the facility)
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From page 128... ...
However, a variety of support systems have been created to intensify production and increase its efficiency. Support systems, if well conceived, can reduce labor requirements, increase productivity, and increase the yield from seed.
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From page 129... ...
Although technical and economic feasibility has been established for the nearshore culture of some marine species, commercial viability is challenged by numerous environmental, institutional, and social issues that increase costs. New technological advances are needed to permit aquaculture to flourish in the nearshore environment, which is often exploited for other uses or degraded and polluted from intensive development.
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From page 130... ...
Human fecal contamination of coastal waters and the resulting risks and dangers to public health are major constraints to shellfish farming. The traditional methods of detecting contamination are inadequate and result in many areas of coastal waters being unnecessarily removed from production.
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From page 131... ...
Onshore Systems The development of onshore systems would enable the movement of culture operations inland from the nearshore coastal waters where many other competing activities tend to take place such as recreational boating and fishing. The major factors limiting further expansion of the industry would then become technical and economic rather than political and institutional.
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From page 132... ...
The further development of onshore systems awaits the determination of particular marine species that can be cultured in enclosed and crowded conditions. High-density recirculating systems have been tested for animals such as red drum, freshwater prawns, tilapia, and penaeid shrimp (Reed, 19891.
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Water Supply Systems Marine animals typically require large quantities of high-quality seawater. The water supply systems of marine aquaculture projects, therefore, are critical to the success of the operation and are an important component of the capital and operating costs.
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From page 134... ...
or systems using pumped seawater. Most onshore systems, therefore, can benefit from some form of water reuse that either reduces energy and facility requirements for pumping and temperature control or reduces freshwater consumption where it must be purchased or pumped.
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In many ways, this type of closed system is technically feasible for marine aquaculture operations. However, a combination of technical and economic factors constrains the development of these reuse systems for marine aquaculture applications.
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From page 136... ...
The second meeting, a workshop held in September 1991 at the East-West Center in Hawaii (NSF, 1991) , brought together biologists, engineers, researchers, and practitioners to explore the opportunities of offshore aquaculture, with particular attention to moving aquaculture operations even further away from protected coastal waters.
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From page 137... ...
Underlying these technical and engineering advances, an expanded base of biological research is necessary to provide the requisite knowledge of the life history of candidate species, nutrition requirements, fish behavior, controlled reproduction, and ecological impacts. Existing Offshore Structures The use of existing offshore structures could alleviate some of the excessive cost of offshore operations.
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From page 138... ...
Experimental cylindrical submerged cages have been used in the Caribbean, and other mechanical means of raising and lowering various cage designs have been tried in Canada and Spain (Fish Farming International, 19901.
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Use of Deep Ocean Water One futuristic system that could operate either onshore or offshore involves the coupling of marine aquaculture operations with ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) projects that are currently being engineered and tested (ECOR, 1989~.
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From page 140... ...
increased shelf life of fish products; · diversification or increase in range of marketable products; control and monitoring of the quality and safety of products; and reduction in labor costs. Technological approaches can help marine aquaculture to provide highquality, safe products, as well as enable more efficient, economical, and adaptable marketing strategies.
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From page 141... ...
Product quality can be enhanced by the development of rapid and accurate quality testing methods (e.g., disease identification and detection of 1\ ~ 1 ~ Power reel and seine used to harvest fish from earthen ponds.
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From page 142... ...
equipment that would decrease labor requirements and potentially provide for size selection as well. Similarly, improved technology to harvest shellfish mechanically could reduce labor costs and also reduce environmental impacts.
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. In addition to ensuring longer shelf life, technology can contribute to increased yield and improved market appeal; product losses or deterioration due to dehydration and dripping can be minimized with the right combination of materials, gases, and temperature control.
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OTHER RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING OPPORTUNITIES Marine Fisheries Enhancement Advances in a number of technological areas would benefit both public stock enhancement and private ocean ranching. For example, improved hatchery techniques for production of red drum, striped bass, oysters, scallops, and other species would contribute to the success of marine fisheries enhancement of endangered and threatened species for recreational and commercial fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico, the central and south Atlantic, San Francisco Bay, and along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.
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From page 145... ...
An improved system of marking hatchery fish that are released for enhancement and ocean ranching (akin to branding cattle) also would benefit marine fisheries management.
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From page 146... ...
The domestication of agricultural crops and animals has taken place over hundreds of years; attempts to domesticate marine aquatic organisms have been under way for only about 20 years at most. In California, producers of striped bass and white sturgeon depend on access to wild fish for spawning.
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From page 147... ...
Broodstock domestication for the future is likely to include a wide range of species. Finfish species for which broodstock domestication is imperative include striped bass and its hybrids, Pacific salmon, sturgeon, red drum, dolphin, snapper, grouper, and flounder for food fish, as well as ornamentals.
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From page 148... ...
This recommendation would require that all production of transgenic species to take place under NIH guidelines and would establish mandatory federal regulatory review and authority over proposed releases and transport of transgenic fish. The application of selected or directed breeding to aquatic organisms has been reviewed by a variety of authors (e.g., Doyle, 1983; Gjerdem, 1983; Lannan and Kapuscinski, 1986; Shultz, 1986; Gall, 19901.
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From page 149... ...
Disease Assessment and Treatment Disease Diagnosis The development of diagnostic tests has been identified as one of the principal means of improving aquaculture productivity (Ratafia and Purinton, 1989~. Rapid, accurate, and inexpensive techniques for disease assessment and certification for marine organisms in culture are essential prerequisites to screening large numbers of fry, fingerlings, postlarvae, or spat rapidly for certain critical diseases.
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From page 150... ...
SUMMARY Advances in technology and an improved understanding of the biology of relevant species are essential for marine aquaculture to overcome many of the major constraints on future development. Some new and improved technologies would solve specific technical problems directly and thereby improve economic feasibility; other technologies would alleviate environmental concerns and diminish conflicts with other coastal zone activities.
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From page 151... ...
Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 20~21:61-71. Billard, R
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From page 152... ...
1989. Private striped bass broodstock collection and rearing program: 1989 activities and eight-year progress report.
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Advances in World Aquaculture, World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, La. Hershberger, W.K., J.M.
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Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 20~2~:31-37. Kapuscinski, A.R., and E.M.
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From page 155... ...
Proceedings of the World Aquaculture Society and the American Society of Agricultural Engineers Jointly Sponsored Session at the World Aquaculture Society Meeting, San Juan, Puerto Rico. Losordo, T.M., R.H.
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From page 156... ...
Tomass, eds. Baton Rouge, La.: World Aquaculture Society.
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From page 157... ...
Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 19(4)
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