Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment in the Humid Tropics (1993) / Chapter Skim
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Côte d'Ivoire
Côte d'Ivoire
Pages 352-392
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From page 352... ...
, and Mansonia altissima (betel, which require annual rainfall of 1,600 mm. CeZtis species are an important part of the dominant layer in the humid semideciduous forests, which require annual rainfall of 1,350 to 1,600 mm.
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From page 353... ...
There are areas of littoral Savannah in the humid evergreen forest zone (Persson, 1977~. In the coastal region, the climate is tropical, with two dry and two rainy seasons each year.
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From page 354... ...
, the crude death rate fell from 22 to 15 per 1,000 population (Economic Intelligence Unit, 1991; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 1989~. An increasing proportion of the population lives in urban areas.
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From page 355... ...
The data indicate that agricultural population densities have increased over time nationwide and that they are higher in the forest zone than they are in the Savannah zone (Figure 2~. By 1989, the forest and Savannah zones had densities of 38.9 and 13.5 inhabitants per km2, respectively.
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From page 356... ...
P4ricultwal Population KIn2 Uwbk L—d Stofe border Local goven~man~ border ~ 30 to 39.9 ~ ~— Link forost-wvanneh FIGURE 2 Agricultural population density in Cote d'Ivoire in 1985. The numbers next to the symbols are in agricultural population per square kilometer of usable land.
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From page 357... ...
Pp. 120125 In Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project (in the Framework of GEMS)
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From page 358... ...
Today, the main forestry policy question facing the government of Cote d'Ivoire is how to manage effectively what is left of the original 15 million ha of tropical rain forest, which has been reduced to less than 2 million ha (Ehui and Hertel, 1989; Spears, 1986~. Current government policy objectives, as defined in the 1976-1980 and 19811985 5-year plans, include preservation and protection of the forest stock (Borreau, 1984~.
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From page 359... ...
Various issues. Agricultural Production Yearbook.
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From page 360... ...
, agriculture still remains the pillar of the country's economy. It contributes about 33 percent of the GDP, provides between 50 and 75 percent of the nation's total export earnings, and employs an estimated 79 percent of the labor force, of which 13 percent are immigrants (Economic Intelligence Unit, 1991~.
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From page 361... ...
Production of cotton rose from 2,000 metric tons in 1965 to 39,000 metric tons in 1980 and 68,000 metric tons in 1987. As a result, Cote d'Ivoire is now Africa's third largest cotton producer, after Egypt and Sudan (Economic Intelligence Unit, 1991~.
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From page 362... ...
Figures 4 and 5 present per capita food and agricultural production, respectively, in Cote d'Ivoire and sub-Saharan
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From page 363... ...
363 ¢ EM _ to U)
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From page 364... ...
Although sub-Saharan Africa has received much publicity for its recent famines (for example, the famine caused by drought in Ethopia from 1984 to 1986) and declining per capita food production, per capita food production in Cote d'Ivoire has actually increased considerably over time; agricultural production (which includes nonfood crops)
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From page 365... ...
The stabilization fund has been able to make transfers to public enterprise budgets and to pay 130 420 .~ ~5 2 110 cat ce ·= 1 00 ct a, 90 80 ,: \\ \~-: ,~ \ l \ I \ Aim, \ _ l 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 Year FIGURE 4 Per capita food production in Cote d'Ivoire ~ ~ and subSaharan Africa ( -- -I, 197~1986. Source: U.S.
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From page 366... ...
, farmers in Cote d'Ivoire have received prices that, on average, have assured them incomes higher than those of farmers in the sub-Saharan region (den Tuinder, 1978; Gbetibouo and DeIgado, 1984~. WorIct prices were depressed during most of the 1980s, and the government was unable either to exact surpluses from the export crop sector or to maintain the real purchasing power of the planters (Economic Intelligence Unit, 1991~.
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From page 367... ...
With huge untapped reserves of arable land, economic growth was fueled by the rapid extension of the land frontier (Lee, 1983~. The expansion, however, has often been onto marginal soils and sloping uplands that cannot support permanent cropping as do the temperate areas, where agricultural production has increased in recent decades mainly through the more intensive use of already cleared land (Ehui and Hertel, 1992a)
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From page 368... ...
Not only are forests destroyed to make room for the roads, the roads and passages then provide access to previously undisturbed areas. For example, a road program funded by the African Development Bank has led to the construction of a major highway along the Atlantic coast (Economic Intelligence Unit, 1991~.
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From page 369... ...
Underlying Causes of Deforestation Some of the underlying causes of deforestation are the result of the combined effects of the spread of shifting cultivation, which, in turn, is caused by population pressures, unclearly defined land ten
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From page 370... ...
The system, however, operates effectively only when there is sufficient land to allow a long fallow period so that soil productivity, which is exhausted during the short cropping cycle, can be restored. Today, because of increasing populations, fallow periods are being reduced and smallholders are compelled to clear more forests or to exploit the more fragile, marginal lands that cannot support an increasingly large population.
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From page 371... ...
Collective Ownership The second form of forestland tenure is communal, or collective, ownership. Under this category, local communities (villages)
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From page 372... ...
Private Individual Ownership The third and last form of land tenure is private individual ownership. This form of ownership is the least developed, however, because few individuals own forestland outright (Bertrand, 1983; Food and Agriculture Organization and United Nations Environment Program, 1981~.
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From page 373... ...
Also, the titling problems exacerbated by unclearly defined property rights place smallscale farmers at a distinct disadvantage in negotiating with banks and government entities for credit. Some forestry-based policy instruments have also contributed to the rapid rate of deforestation in Cote d'Ivoire.
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From page 374... ...
Climatologists are engaged in a continuing debate, however, regarding the global effects of deforestation in this regard. One analysis suggests that the amount of CO2 released by the clearing and burning of wood from dense tropical forests may be roughly equivalent to the amount of CO2 released by fossil fuel combustion (Woodwell, 1978~.
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From page 375... ...
The erosion of the genetic base as a result of deforestation will make it increasingly difficult to maintain economic production from biologic resources. Agricultural Productivity After forests are cleared from the land, the soil's physical and chemical properties undergo significant changes, leading to nutrient losses, accelerated rates of soil erosion, and declining yields (Lal, 1981; Seubert et al., 1977~.
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From page 376... ...
conducted simulation studies that measured the value of conserving marginal forestlands in Cote d'Ivoire by taking into account the short- and longterm impacts of deforestation on agricultural productivity. Examination of the impacts of deforestation and cumulative deforested lands on food crop revenues indicated that forest conservation results in net benefit to agriculture.
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From page 377... ...
This traditional food crop production system, which is based solely on the restorative properties of woody species, has sustained agricultural production on uplands in many parts of the tropics for many generations. The system involves partial clearing of the forest or bush fallow.
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From page 378... ...
, sustainable land use management technologies should include the following: · Preservation of the delicate ecologic balance, namely, that among vegetation, climate, and soil; · Maintenance of a regular, adequate supply of organic matter on the soil surface; · Enhancement of soil fauna activity and soil turnover by natural process; · Maintenance of the physical condition of the soil so that it is suitable for the land use; mars; · Replenishment of the nutrients removed by plants and ani· Creation of a desirable nutrient balance and soil reaction; · Prevention of the buildup of pests and undesirable plants; · Adaptation of a natural nutrient recycling mechanism to avoid nutrient losses from leaching; and · Preservation of ecologic diversity. All of these requirements are met in the traditional shifting cultivation systems that allow short cropping periods followed by long fallow periods.
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From page 379... ...
Organic matter can be built up and soil structure can be improved, even on eroded and degraded lands, by growing appropriate planted fallow for 2 to 3 years (Wilson et al., 1982, 1986~. Despite the potential benefits that can be derived from the use of crop residues or herbaceous cover crops, their use has never gained popular acceptance in the humid tropics (Wilson et al., 1986)
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From page 380... ...
Alley Cropping Alley cropping is an agroforestry system in which crops are grown in alleys formed by hedgerows of trees and shrubs, preferably legumes (Figure 7~. The hedgerows are cut back at the time of planting of food crops and are periodically pruned during cropping to prevent shading and to reduce competition with the associated food crops.
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From page 381... ...
On sloping lands, planting of hedgerows along the contours greatly reduces soil erosion. Alley cropping or farming is a potentially beneficial technology, but despite the improved basic knowledge about this technology, it is still in the development phase in the humid tropics.
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From page 382... ...
, indicate that conservation tillage can be extremely effective in controlling soil erosion. For example, mean soil erosion rates for areas with slopes of up to 15 percent were estimated to be 0.1 and 9.4 metric tons/ha for no-till and plowed systems, respectively.
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From page 383... ...
SECURE PROPERH RIGHTS The pressure for shorter fallow periods, spurred by population growth, requires investments in land improvements to retain soil fertility and investments of capital to expedite the preparation of land for farming and to increase productivity. The incentive to undertake such investments is based in part on secure future access to that land.
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From page 384... ...
(Marginal social costs are defined as the direct costs of clearing the forest plus the associated opportunity or user costs.) Because the forest stock is fixed, any unit cleared or consumed is unavailable for use in the future.
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From page 385... ...
Planners must implement an agricultural system that can feed an increasing population without irreparably damaging the natural resource base on which agricultural production depends. Today, with an annual population growth rate of close to 4 percent, the main forestry policy question facing the government of Cote d'Ivoire is how to effectively manage what is left of the tropical rain forest.
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From page 386... ...
386 / Go of ._ o to U ._ V]
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From page 387... ...
This hypothesis is based on the assumption that there will be no population growth control, that the population will continue to grow at an average rate of 3.6 percent per year, and that the major source of food and agricultural growth for the country will be through the expansion of the agricultural land frontier into presently forested areas rather than through land-saving technologies. Also, projecting the current slump in prices for Cote d'Ivoire's major export crops (cacao and coffee)
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From page 388... ...
TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS Technology options include the following: · Use of organic manure and inorganic fertilizers; · Use of mulches and cover crop systems; · Intensification of agricultural production in humid forest zones through the use of tree-based technologies—such as alley croppingthat can reduce dependence on bush fallowing; · Development of intensive food cron production in lowland areas; 1 1 · Conservation tilIage; and · Creation of a buffer zone of intensive agricultural perennials (coffee, cacao, oil palm, and rubber) around or adjacent to the most imminently threatened forest areas.
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From page 389... ...
Even though alley cropping has proved to be agronomically and economically more viable than alternative land use systems, its successful adoption depends on the prevailing policy environment. Without sound economic policies that support agriculture such as investment in infrastructure, proper incentives to farmers, adequate supplies of production inputs, effective marketing, and credit facilities—it will be difficult to achieve increased agricultural productivity through new land use technologies.
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From page 390... ...
1990. Economic analysis of soil erosion effects in alley cropping, no-till and bush fallow systems in south western Nigeria.
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From page 391... ...
1989. Alley cropping for food production.
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From page 392... ...
1986. Alley cropping: Trees as sources of green-manure and mulch in the tropics.
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