Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment in the Humid Tropics (1993) / Chapter Skim
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From page 679... ...
, 183 Acioa baterii, 96, 98 Africa agroforestry systems, 82 cattle pastureland, 86-87 deforestation, 35-38, 41, 160 forest cover, 36 humid tropical area, 23 income per capita, 41 shifting cultivation in, 41 soils, 23, 27, 53, 54, 57 see also individual countries Afzelia bella, 96 Agricultural productivity biological constraints on, 57-58 climate and, 52-53 deforestation and, 375-376 hydrological cycle changes and, 48 679 pests and, 57-58, 155-157 soils and, 1-2, 53-57 sources of growth, 364-367 Agriculture advancement of frontiers, 5-6, 4142, 44, 45, 77, 163, 223, 645 carbon losses from, 223 and deforestation, 44, 45, 61, 223, 367, 406-408, 510, 645 demand for land, 406-408 and economic development, 241 242 extension programs, 85, 187-188 green revolution, 71-72 and greenhouse gas emissions, 4849, 223-224 monocultural systems, 8, 59-60, 75, 101-102 nutrient cycling in, 56, 60 permanent, 49, 223-224 pesticide use, 60, 70 and pollution, 60 research needs, 62-64, 600-601 slash-and-burn, see Shifting cultivation subsistence farming, 54
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680 see also Amazonian agriculture; Cropping systems; Intensive cropping systems; Shifting cultivation; Sustainable agriculture Agrisilviculture, 93, 94, 97 Agrisilvopastoral systems, 94, 95 Agroecology, 6304, 124, 139 Agroforestry systems, 7, 179 advantages and disadvantages, 9, 11, 13, 98-99, 140-141, 142, 143, 332 arrangement of trees, crops, and livestock, 97-98, 148 boundary planting of trees and hedges, 94 combinations, 328-329 defined, 92 ecological benefits of, 29, 92, 97, 99, 103, 380, 524-525 and greenhouse gases, 250-251, 523 improved, 95-98 inputs, 11, 142, 332 intercropping in, 94, 100-101 labor-intensive, 16, 181 livestock in, 332-333 mixed tree, 106, 329-330 principles, 92 regeneration time for trees, 94 research priorities, 76, 99-100, 333, 523-524 rotational, 94 semiextractive, 330 shifting cultivation with, 80-81, 94 successful use of, 94-95, 330-331 suitability of, 68 sustainability, 95, 100, 330-331 traditional types, 93-95 tree and woody shrub species recommended for, 9097, 33 331, 524-525 Village Forest Project, 187 see also Alley cropping; other individual systems Agropastoral systems features and benefits, 9, 13, 83-84, 140-141, 143 land suitable for, 68 livestock and crops used in, 82-83 INDEX research needs, 83, 84-85, 91-92 Alchornea cordifolia, 96, 97, 98 Alley cropping arrangement of trees and crops, 94, 97, 380 ecological/environmental benefits of, 380-382, 525 economics of, 99, 381-382 livestock in, 381 and soil fertility, 99, 100, 158, 575576 sustainability in, 575-576 tree species used for, 98, 524-525 see also Contour hedgerow systems Amazon Basin agroforestry, 95, 328-333 deforestation rates, 164, 280-286 extractive reserves, 135, 136 fires, 121, 123, 285 forest regeneration on grasslands, 120, 123 Grande Carajas project, 191 logging in, 283 macroecological units, 269-270 market potential for products from, 183 natural forest management, 130 soils, 54, 55 timber production, 283 see also individual countries Amazonian agriculture basis for sustainability analysis of, 265-266 cattle raising, 44, 85, 88, 316-326 chronology of, 268, 271, 272-273 continuous cropping, 70 domestication of nontimber forest extraction products, 292 economics of, 271-280 environmental bottlenecks to, 290291 expansion potential of present land use systems, 339-342 extraction of nontimber forest products, 279-280, 296-297, 300 308 on floodplains, 271-272, 277-278, 293, 314-316, 322-324 future scenario, 330339
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, 104 Beans, 82, 83, 151 Bete (Mansonia altissima) , 352 Bioclimes classifications, 152, 293 forested, in tropical zone, 28 Biogeographical diversity, 399-400 681 Biological diversity agricultural practices and, 57, 60, 72 comparison of land use systems, 140 conservation of, 105, 106, 110, 155, 170-171, 470-471 conversion of forests and, 46, 47-48 deforestation and, 48, 375 enrichment planting and, 136 on extractive reserves, 135 in fallows, 81 genetic, 30-31, 57, 72, 171 in home gardens, 107 losses, 46, 47-48, 60, 72, 113 in managed areas, 126, 526 in mixed tree systems, 105-106, 110 in protected areas and buffer zones, 71, 75, 135, 525-526 research priorities, 30 in secondary forests, 81 species, 30, 136 sustainable management, 525-526 in tree crop plantations, 113, 450451, 470-471 of tropical moist forests, 29, 30-31, 450-451 Biomass burning, carbon from, 220, 232-233 climate and, 153 greenhouse gas emissions from, 234, 237 losses from forests, 37, 127, 136, 230, 231 maintenance of, 152-153, 155 net primary production by tree species, 97 nutrient availability in, 56, 155, 157 in regenerating forests, 120-121, 123, 140-141 in tree plantations, 115, 116, 153, 157, 229 Biophysical factors comparison in land use systems, 139-140, 142 and deforestation, 242 documentation needs, 13, 150-152 land use spatial patterns and, 147, 242
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, 104, 151, 274 in agroforestry systems, 330, 331 plantations, 100-101, 113, 114 Calliandra calothyrsus, 96, 97, 98 Cameroon, 38, 130 Carbon accounting models, 238-241 agriculture-related losses, 223-226 from biomass burning, 232-233 cycle, 30, 48, 49, 102-103, 115, 126127, 153 flux from land use changes, 216217, 221-222, 239, 242-249 logging-related losses, 230, 231 models of flux, 242-249 sinks, tropical systems as, 30, 140, 142, 227, 233-234, 251-252 in soils, 220, 221 taxes, 172 in vegetation, 220, 221 Carbon dioxide emissions deforestation and, 245, 284 forest role in balance of, 523 and global warming, 48, 102, 219 sources, 48, 49, 190, 216-217, 224, 230, 232-234 sustainable land use and, 102-103, 190, 224 Carbon monoxide, flux from land use changes, 234, 237-238 Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea) , 116 Carica spp., 103
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, 76, 88 Contour hedgerow systems bunding, 574-575 cash crop production in, 578 cattle production in, 578-579 grass strips, 576 intercropping with noncompetitive species, 576-577 Leucaena, 76, 99, 572-573 natural vegetative strips, 577-578 other species, 573 and soil conservation, 99, 381 see also Alley cropping Cooperative for American Relief Everywhere (CARE) , 187 Coppicing, 81, 96 Costa Rica, 37, 104, 169, 184, 185, 225 Cote d'Ivoire, 352-354 agriculture, 44, 36~367, 372-373, 375-385, 388-389 a gro fo r es try, 380-3 82 biodiversity, 375 cattle grazing, 369 climate and microclimate, 352, 353354, 374-375
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, 330, 331, 333 D Dams, 169, 237 Debt-for-nature swaps, 172 Deforestation and agricultural productivity, 375376 agriculture and, 44, 45, 61, 223, 241-242, 280-286, 367, 406-408, 510, 645 Amazonian, 280-286 and biodiversity, 48, 375 carbon releases from, 219-220, 232, 239, 284 cattle grazing and, 68, 86, 369, 506507 causes, 40-41, 68, 138, 221, 223, 367-373, 506-511 and climate and microclimate, 238, 370375 colonization projects and, 507-508 debt burden of developing countries and, 50 definition of, 5, 33, 35, 499-502 development assistance policies and, 51 economic development and, 241242 environmental impacts, 284~286, 374-377 estimates of, 36, 502-506, 562-56? extent, 23, 37, 154, 280-281, 451-456
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INDEX and extractive reserves, 137 from fires, 236, 415, 508-509 food consumption and, 244 fuelwood extraction and, 6, 44, 368, 645 646 and greenhouse gases, 48-49, 232, 235, 237, 238, 245 historical patterns, 45 land tenure regimes, 42, 370-372, 509 logging and, 5-6, 44, 68, 368, 408410, 457-458, 646-647 of mangrove swamps, 45 models, 242-249 national security and, 509 political corruption and, 167 population pressure and, 45, 400 408, 647-649 process, 68, 565-568 projections, 239-240, 47~475 public policies and, 163, 164-167, 181, 284, 388-389 rates, 5, 35-39, 161, 164, 220, 243, 281-284, 405-406, 523, 56~565 reduction strategies, 61, 76 reversal of, 37 road building and other engineering works and, 511 scenarios, 242-249, 387-389, 609612 shifting cultivation and, 226, 173174, 370, 409-411 and soil degradation, 3~39, 56-57 of steep slopes, 45 sustainable agriculture and, 160 technology options, 388 timber exploitation and, 510, 568569 and timber production potential, 376-377 transmigration and, 160, 411-413 tree crop development and, 68, 413-415 tree ownership and, 509 underlying causes, 369-373, 569 Deforested lands, reclamation of degraded pasture on, 90 Degraded lands area of, 225 685 carbon loss from, 225, 231 credit access and rehabilitation of, 177 cropland, 225 incentives for improvement of, 16, 180-181 rehabilitation projects, 179-180 restoration potential, 3 tree crop plantations on, 11~111, 115 Desmodium sp., 95 Developing countries compensation for conservation, 15, 172 debt burden, 41, 43, 50, 164 harvest losses to pests, 155-156 property rights in, 166-167 see also individual countries Development assistance policies and cattle raising, 88 conservation linked to, 172 coordination of donor imperatives, 1~15, 165-166, 607-609 energy sources, 190~191 and forest conversion, 14, 42, 51, 88, 161 impact assessments of infrastructure projects, 169 incentives for land improvement and rehabilitation, 180~183 land tenure provisions, 176 local participation in planning, 178-180 negative impacts of, 164 and sustainable agriculture, 51 Dialium guineense, 98 Digitaria decumbens, 89 Drought livestock resistance to, 87 rainfall distribution and, 52 Durian (Durio zibethinus) , 104, 105, 106 Dutch Development Corporation, 161 E Economic development agricultural practices and, 241-242, 249-250
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686 and deforestation, 241 diversification by farmers and, 3-4 gross national product, per capita, 24-26 and land use changes, 241-242 tree crop plantations and, 111-113, 329-330 see also Socioeconomic factors Economics of alley cropping, 99, 381-382 of Amazonian agriculture, 248, 271-276 attributes of land use systems, 141, 142-143, 248 benefits of tropical forests, 523 of biodiversity conservation, 171 of forest conversion, 7, 50-51, 164166 of forestry, 402~05 of home gardens, 105 of livestock production, 84, 86 of logging, 77 of mixed tree systems, 105, 109, 140-141, 329-330 of timber production, 45, 402-403 of tree crop plantations, 141, 142143, 461-463 of wood-based industries, 402-403 Ecuador, 88, 95 Education and training programs, 17, 85, 186-187, 188 Energy alternative sources, and land use, 190-191 greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, 216-217 Erythrina spp., 96, 97, 98 Eucalyptus spp., 115, 191, 333 Extractive reserves, 134-137, 149, 171, 176, 279-280 F Fertilizer use, 55-56, 380 greenhouse gas emissions from, 48, 237 in intensive cropping systems, 70, 75 manure, 84, 381 negative environmental effects of, 75 INDEX on tree crop plantations, 113 Ficus spp., 103 Finnish International Development Agency, 161 Fires carbon monoxide emissions from, 237-238 deforestation from, 236, 237, 415, 508-509 ecology and management, 591 environmental impacts of, 285-286 forest conversion and risk of, 48, 285 and forest regeneration, 121, 123 greenhouse gas emissions from, 236-237, 285 logging and, 126 and nitrogen in soils, 237 Flemingia spp., 96, 98 Floodplain agriculture, 151 Amazonian, 277-278, 314-316, 322324 agroforestry, 330 intensive cropping systems, 70 research needs, 316 sustainability of, 45, 315-316 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) agroforestry program, 179 Forest Resources Assessment 1990 Project, 23, 35 forest policy review, 161 soil classification, 152 Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 165166 Food production, sustainable, 522-523 Forest conversion agricultural expansion and, 41-42 and biodiversity losses, 46, 47-48 carbon losses from, 22, 224 causes of, 5-6, 39-44, 138 climatic effects, 48-49 defined, 5, 33 development assistance policies and, 14, 42, 51, 88, 161 displacement of indigenous people, 7,50 economics of, 7, 50-51, 164-166 environmental consequences, 7, 4649, 50
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INDEX extent of, 39, 42 and fire risk, 48 government policies contributing to, 162-168 to grasslands, 86, 121 and greenhouse gas concentrations, 48-49, 102-103, 218, 224 historical patterns of, 14 45 hydrological effects of, 46, 48 infrastructure development and, 42 number of farmers engaged in, 42 to pastureland, 6, 68, 85, 88, 162, 164, 224, 316-320 to plantations, 113, 128 policies contributing to, 42-43, 164 rates, 35, 44, 45 research needs on, 46 social consequences, 7, 49-51 and soil degradation, 46, 50 sustainable agriculture and, 160 transformation processes, 68 see also Deforestation Forest degradation defined, 5, 35 causes, 40-41, 168-169 and greenhouse gases, 23, 231 rates, 37 Forest gardens, 107; see also Home gardens; Mixed tree systems Forest products, nontimber examples of, 31-32 domestication of, 292 extraction of, 135, 296-297, 306-308 markets for, 135, 183-184 research needs, 308 see also Commodities Forest regeneration acceleration techniques, 10, 121-125 attributes of, 140-141 biomass and nutrient recovery, 120-121, 123, 140-141 constraints on, 131 ecological benefits of, 10, 29, 30, 140-141 extent of, 39 fires and, 121, 123 in grass-dominated fields, 120, 121, 123 improvement thinning and, 130 687 natural forest management and, 127, 128, 129, 130 pioneer species, 121 processes, 126 purposes, 118 rates, 118-119, 127-128, 130 seedling and sprout establishment, 119-120 shifting cultivation and, 81, 120-121 species appropriate for, 123 Forest reserves, 133-137, 288, 35~355, 371, 417, 419, 420, 431, 436, 450, 456-457, 497, 505, 514, 528, 534, 637, 638; see also Buffer zones; Extractive reserves; Protected areas Forestlands, designated, 397-398, 418419 Forestry/forest management, 637-639 community-based, 593-595, 607~08 economic importance of, 402-405 enrichment planting, 596 indigenous communities' role and rights, 592-593 labor-based timber extraction, 595596 mixed tree systems, past and present, 102-106 patches/groves, 103 plantation, 10, 115-118, 140-141, 143-144, 229 policy review, 161-168 research and development, 109-110, 602 shifting cultivation and, 424-425 small-scale, 46 social forestry programs, 179-180, 251 sustainable, 69 sustained-yield, 595 see also Agroforestry; Natural forest management Forests of humid tropics appraisals of resources, 35 bioclimes in tropical zone, 5, 28 biological diversity, 29, 30-31, 450451 boundary stabilization, intensive cropping systems and, 77 climatic interactions, 30, 48-49
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688 closed, 37-38 commercial areas, 635-637 conservation, 108-110, 419-420 defined, 23 ecological benefits, 29-33, 523 economic benefits, 523 exploration, 293 extents, 23, 34, 35, 36, 244 fires, 48, 415, 508-509 formations, 5, 28-29, 448, 450 managed, 29, 80 81, 103, 125, 127 modified, 11, 13, 132-133, 140-141, 30 143, 230, 480485, 516 nutrient cycling, 32 patches, 103, 108 permanent, 456-457 production, 398-399 product extraction areas, 279-280; see also Extractive reserves; Forest products, nontimber; Timber and timber products protected areas, 11, 108, 133-134, 140-141, 144, 511, 637 soils, 32, 56-57 stabilization of hydrological systems, 32-33 transformation, 35 types, 23, 560-562, 626 valuation of, 163 water availability and quality, 33 see also Forest regeneration; Forest reserves; Secondary forests Fruit tree species, 104 Fuelwood, 368 decay rates, 231 demand and harvesting, and deforestation, 6, 44, 191, 368, 645-646 greenhouse gas emissions from, 237 from leguminous trees, 95 plantations, 191 research needs, 191 G Gabon, 38, 130 Gardens multistory, 82 INDEX see also Forest gardens; Home gardens Ghana, 130 Gliricidia septum, 87, 96, 98, 576 Global Environmental Monitoring System, 154 Global warming biomass and, 153 deforestation and, 235, 238, 37~375 effects of, 48, 216 forest-atmosphere interactions and, and land use, 48-49, 102-103, 216219, 252 temperature increase rates, 48 see also Climate; Greenhouse gases Grameen Bank, 177 Grasses in agroforestry systems, 333 effects on forest regeneration, 120, 121, 123 Grasslands area of, 233 biomass losses from burning, 233 cattle raising on, 320-326 converted forestlands, 86, 121 fallow improvement systems, 587589 fires, 121 floodplains, 322-324 greenhouse gas emissions from, 237 home gardens on degraded hillsides, 107 knowledge base on, 294 land tenure, 586-587 low-forage-value, 86 poorly drained, 324-326 reforestation efforts, 589-591 Savannah, 86, 324-326, 321-322 well-drained, 321-322 Graviola (Annona muricata) , 330, 331 Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, 48-49, 223-224 agroforestry and, 25~251 atmospheric concentrations, 48 conversion of forests and, 48-49, 102-103 from deforestation, 48-49, 232, 235, 237, 238
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, 104, 106 H Harungana madagascariensis, 98 Hedgerow systems species appropriate for, 98 see also Contour hedgerow systems Home gardens, 7, 94 Bari system, 107-108 biodiversity in, 107 components of, 101, 106 conservation of species in, 106 on degraded hillsides, 107 economic advantages of, 105 fruit production, 104 pekarangan, 106, 107 pest management in, 101 production and nutrition value of, 107 Honduras, 169 Humid tropics climate, 5, 22-23, 28, 52-53 conditions and characteristics, 5, 21-22 land ownership, 45 population, 23, 40-41, 45 vegetation, 5, 23, 28-29 see also Forests of the humid tropics; Soils of the humid tropics Hydrological systems and agricultural productivity, 48 689 forest conversion effects on, 46, 48 stabilization by forests, 32-33 Hyparrhenia rufa, 89, 120 Imperata cylindrica, 86, 120, 121, 123, 182 India, 38, 86, 130 Indigenous people Amuesha-Campa communities, 169 Bora Indians, 104, 108 Cabecar Indians, 104 collaborative research with, 14-15 displacement by infrastructure development, 169 effects of forest conversion on, 7, 50 food crops of, 58 forest management role and rights, 592-593 Guaymi Indians, 104 involvement in land use planning, 150 knowledge of land use systems, 1314, 144-145 land tenure for, 166, 174-175, 599600 Maya, 132, 516-519 mixed tree systems, 101-102 modification of forests, 132-133 property rights of, 166-167 resource management by, 129, 134, 162-163, 515-519 secondary forest use, 123 Surui people, 162 Yanomani, 176 Indonesia agriculture, 45, 157, 395-396, 406408, 425-426, 429~31 alley cropping in, 576 assessment of forest loss, 433-438 biogeographical diversity, 399-400 cattle raising in, 86 commodity price supports, 165 conservation of forest ecosystems, 419-420 deforestation history and causes, 38, 45, 164, 165, 167, 405-415, 431-433
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, 71 International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA) , 76, 381 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
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INDEX on abandoned lands, 16, 182 ancestral rights of indigenous occupants, 166, 167, 599-600 collective ownership, 175, 371-372 and deforestation, 42, 166, 370-372, 509 on extractive reserves, 135 and population growth rates, 597598 private individual ownership, 372 property rights issues, 383-384 reforms, 16, 135, 150, 174-177, 598599 regimes, 175, 370-372, 383-384 reinforcement of local stewardship through, 598-599 and resource degradation, 175 state ownership, 371 titling, 16, 169, 174-177 for small-scale farmers, 175 and sustainable resource management, 59-60, 132, 176-177 Land use abstract spatial consideration of patterns of, 248-249 alternative energy sources and, 190-191 approach to sustainability in, 64-65 attributes of systems compared, 139-144 and biomass maintenance, 152-153 biophysical attributes of, 139-140, 142 and carbon sinks, 251-252 in catchment areas, 158 classification systems, 150-152, 154 climate change and, 48-49, 102-103, 216-219 constraints on sustainability, 249 demographics and, 148 design and management considerations, 145-154 ecological guidelines for systems management, 154-155 economic attributes of systems, 141, 142-143 expansion potential of present systems, 339-342 factors affecting changes, 241-242 691 global equity considerations, 15, 172, 190 and global warming, 48-49, 102103, 216-219, 252 and greenhouse gas emissions, 189190, 219-238 impact assessments of infrastructure projects, 168-169 incentives for improvement of, 180183 indigenous knowledge and production systems, 144-145 integrated approach to, 8, 62-64, 146-150, 164 knowledge about options, 139-145 monitoring systems and methodologies, 153-154 national-to-global model of impacts, 242-246 negative impacts of policies, 164167 nonsustainable uses, 67 parameters for analyzing sustainability of, 304-305 and pest management, 155-157 policy review, 161-168 political and social stability and, 188-189 population growth and, 189 rates of change in, 1 research needs, 158 scale considerations, 148-149 social attributes of systems, 141, 142 spatial arrangements of, 146-147, 246-248 sustainable, 3, 66-69, 138, 146-150, 218, 249-252, 415-431 technical needs common to all options, 155-158 temporal arrangements of, 147-148 transitional, 148 and water management, 158 zoning for, 149-150 Latin America agropastoral systems, 82-83 cattle pastureland, 87-89 deforestation, 35-38 forest cover, 36
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, 352 Malaysia agriculture, 6, 147, 445-447 biodiversity, 450-451, 470-471 deforestation, 6, 38, 68, 164, 167, 451-456, 473-475 economy (domestic) , 445-447 forests, 38, 448-458 land use, 448 logging, 68, 126, 164, 457-458 manufacturing, 447 mixed tree systems, 105 natural forest management in, 127128, 130 population, 443~45 research needs, 476-477 soil conservation, 467-468 topography, climate, and soils, 441443
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INDEX tree crop plantations, 6, 68, 113, 114, 458 471, 471~73 water systems protection, 468-470 Managed fallows and forests, 29, 8081, 101, 103, 108, 125, 127, 132 Mango, 330, 332 Mangroves, 45 Manilkara spp., 103 Maniac, 104, 108 Merck and Company, 184 Methane flux from land-use changes, 234, 23~237 and global warming, 48, 219, 234, 236 sources, 48, 49, 224, 225, 234 Mexico agriculture, 151, 510, 522-523 agroforestry, 523-525 biodiversity management, 525-526 cattle ranching/livestock production, 68, 88, 506-507, 525 chinampa technology, 7, 520 colonization projects, 189, 507-508 deforestation, 38, 68, 88, 499-511, 523 development and conservation programs, 519-521 food and commodity production, 522-523 forest fires, 508-509 forest resources, 38, 496-498 greenhouse gas emissions, 232 history of land use, 484~85 home gardens, 104, 106-107 Huastec Maya, 518-519 improvement of resource management, 526-537 Lacandon Maya, 518 land use, 490-496 lowland Maya, 516-518 managed fallows and forests in, 8081, 130 national security concerns, 509 Plan Puebla, 519-520 population, 484-485 protected areas, 511 road building and other engineering works, 511 693 reforestation, 523 secondary forests of Veracruz, 520521 socioeconomic trends, 485~90 sustainable resource management, 511-526 timber exploitation, 510 traditional approaches to resource management, 515-519 tree ownership and land tenure problems, 509 Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 521522 Milpas, 81 Mining, 43, 176 Mixed tree systems cultivation and management practices, 100-101, 151 ecological advantages of, 13, 105106, 140-141, 143 economics of, 105, 109, 140-141, 329-330 kebun campuran, 107 managed fallows, 108 parak, 104 past and present forest management, 102-106 research on, 102, 109-110 role in tropical forest conservation, 10, 108-110 with shifting cultivation, 103 species cultivated in, 10, 104 sustainable, 110 talun-kebun, 107 types, 101 worldwide, 106-108 see also Forest gardens; Home gardens Models/modeling abstract spatial consideration of land use patterns, 248-249 carbon accounting, 238-241 national-to-global, 242-246 socioeconomic and ecological aspects of land use changes, 241249 spatially explicit, 246-248 Modified forests, see Forests of humid tropics, modified
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, education and training role, 17, 186-187 No-till systems, 185, 382 Nuclea latifolia, 98 Nutmeg, 105 Nutrient cycling in agropastoral systems, 83-84 in alley cropping, 381 comparison of land use systems, 140, 142 in forests, 32 integrated management of, 157-158 land use and, 157-158 in monocultural systems, 60 and productivity, 154, 157-158 in regenerating forests, 120-121, 123, 140-141 research on, 88 in shifting agriculture, 77-78 in soils, 5~56 in tree plantations, 116, 140, 142 o Oil palm production, 11, 113, 114, 128, 274, 330, 332 Orange (Citrus aurantium) , 106 Orchards, 101, 108 p Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM)
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, 333 Paspalum spp., 120 Passion fruit, 330, 331 Pastureland African, 86-87 area of, 233 Asian, 86 biomass losses from burning, 233 cattle, 86-88 degradation, 89, 90, 224, 225 forest conversion to, 6, 68, 85, 88, 162, 164, 224, 316-320 grass-legume mixture, 88 and greenhouse gases, 224-225, 237 knowledge about, 294 Latin American, 87-90, 294 nutrient cycling on, 88, 225 productivity, 225 reclamation of degraded pasture on deforested lands, 73, 90 technology for sustainability, 91-92 weed invasion, 89 Peach palm (Bactris gasipaes) , 104, 183, 330 Perennial crop agriculture land tenure and, 582 progress in, 293-294 research needs, 328 sustainability of, 68, 326-328 Perennial tree crop plantations, 110115, 582 Peru alley cropping in, 576 cattle raising, 88 deforestation, 38, 61, 88 indigenous people, 104, 108, 129 intensive cropping systems, 70 mixed tree systems, 104, 108 natural forest management in, 129 overexploitation of forest products, 136 Pichis-Palcazu Project, 169 soil management practices, 61 Pest management and agricultural productivity, 5758, 155-157, 287 comparison of land use systems, 140 695 with cropping systems, 83 in home gardens, 101 integrated, 157 intensive cropping and, 70, 75 land use and, 155-157 Pesticide use, 60, 70, 156 Philippines, 71 agriculture, 44, 556-557, 559-560, 570-584, 60~601 agroforestry systems, 94-95 community-based resource management, 179-180, 591-595, 598-599, 607-608 contour hedgerow systems, 571-579 dam projects, 169 deforestation, 38, 44, 164, 167, 560569, 609-612 diversification into mixed farming systems, 583-584 fallow improvement systems, 587589 fire ecology and management, 591 foreign aid to, 608-609 forest management, 130, 179-180, 592-596, 602, 607-608 forest types, 560-562 fuelwood use, 44 grasslands and brushlands, 584-592 indigenous communities' role and rights, 176, 592-593, 599-600 institutional changes, 606 land tenure, 166, 176, 586-587, 597600 land use, 552-554 livestock production, 601-602 logging, 44, 607 migration to uplands, 557-558 nutrients for soils, 580-582 perennial crops, 582 permanently farmed sloping lands, 570-584 phosphorus sources for soils, 581582 physical environment, 551-552 political corruption in, 167 population growth and pressures, 86, 554-555, 597-598 reduced-tillage systems, 579-580 reforestation efforts, 589-591
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From page 696... ...
, 82, 101, 107 Plantation agriculture components of, 110-111 crop characteristics, 10, 112 and economic development, 111113 public management of, 112 sustainable management methods, 114 see also Tree crop plantations Plantation forestry, 10, 115-118, 140141, 143-144, 229 Policies, see Development assistance policies; National policies Political and social stability, and land use, 167, 188-189 Population and agriculture, 59 in countries with tropical moist forests, 24-26, 40 and deforestation, 45, 406-408, 647649 growth rates, 41 issues in tropics, 40-41 and land tenure, 597-598 and land use policies, 103, 189, 241 and shifting cultivation, 78-79, 103, 148 Poverty alleviation programs, 76, 145 INDEX debt burden of developing countries, 41 plantation agriculture and, 111 and sustainable land use, 40 Private voluntary organizations, 186 Property rights, 166-167 Protected areas attributes, 144 biodiversity management in, 170171, 525-526 extractive reserves, 130137, 171 forest patches, 103, 108 forestry projects, 187 Kibale Forest Reserve, 187 land area, 133, 511 mechanisms for protection, 11, 133, 511 size and configuration of, 133, 150 social and ecological pressures on, 133-134 Puerto Rico, 225 Q Quercus spp., 103 R Rainfall, and soil loss, 32-33 Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) , 106 Rattan, 136 Recommendations biodiversity conservation, 170-171 biomass maintenance, 152-153 design and selection of land uses, 146-150 enabling environment for sustainable agriculture, 15-16, 174-180 equitable distribution of conservation costs, 15, 172, 190 goals of, 159-160 incentives for land improvement, 16, 180-183 infrastructure development, 16, 160169, 177-178 land titling and land tenure reforms, 174-177
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, 135 Secondary forests area of, 39, 123 benefits, 10, 30, 118, 119) 140-141, 144 biological diversity in, 81
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From page 698... ...
698 carbon cycling, 30, 49, 103, 228, 231 characteristics, 29, 124 clearance for low-input cropping, 82 defined, 122 fires, 121 growth rates, 182 in situ experimental research, 520521 and shifting cultivation, 123 sustainable use of, 10, 61, 123-125, 330, 331 tree species in, 123 Sedimentation, 46-47, 169 Shifting cultivation, 45 agricultural programs affecting, 425-426 agroforestry and, 94, 100, 101, 103 agropastoral systems, 83, 88 attributes of, 140-141 and biomass maintenance, 153 carbon losses from, 225-226, 246, 247 categories of, 41-42, 77 defined, 77 and deforestation, 41, 173-174, 226, 370, 409-411 encroaching cultivation, 228-229 fallow period, 9, 78-80 and forest regeneration, 81, 120-121 forestry programs affecting, 424425 and greenhouse gases, 225-229 land ownership and, 175 low-input cropping, 81-82 managed fallows and forests, 8081, 101 multiple cropping arrangements, 79-80 and nutrient cycling, 77-78, 79 population pressures and, 78-79, 103, 148 rationalization of, 424-428 research needs, 314 short-rotation, 8, 9, 86, 173-174, 226-228 slash-and-mulch, 77-78 social welfare program for isolated societies, 427 soil management practices, 79 INDEX soils used for, 54, 55, 81, 86 stabilization guidelines, 9, 79-80 sustainability of, 78, 225-226, 227228, 313-314 traditional, long-rotation, 7-8, 9, 41, 59, 68, 78, 94, 140-141, 143, 225226 transmigration and, 9, 41-42, 59, 426-428 Shorea spp., 127 Silviculture, 125, 127, 131 Silvopastoral systems, 68, 93-94, 229, 332-333 Social forestry programs, 179-180, 251 Sociocultural conditions, and sustainable agriculture, 288-289 Socioeconomic factors comparison of systems, 141-143 conversion of forests, 49-51 documentation needs, 13, 152 in infrastructure building, 169 in land use changes, 241-242 models, 242-249 monitoring, 153-154 spatial patterns of land use and, 147 and sustainability of land use, 249 Soil conservation in agrisilvopastoral systems, 95 agroforestry and, 380, 381 comparison of land use systems, 140, 143 in contour hedgerow systems, 99, 381 intensive cultivation and, 76 methods, 113 organic matter management, 79, 114 and productivity, 154-155 tree crop plantations and, 114, 467468 Soil degradation agricultural inputs and, 75 alley cropping and, 99 conversion of forests and, 46, 50 deforestation and, 38-39, 56-57 logging and, 126 monitoring, 14, 153 pastureland, 89
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From page 699... ...
, 107, 110 Suriname, 125, 130 Sustainable agriculture agroforestry and, 380~382 in agropastoral systems, 84-85 basis for, 64 65 benefits of, 6102, 160 biological constraints on, 57-58 biotic pressure and, 287 and carbon releases, 247 characteristics of, 22 climate and, 286-287 conservation tillage, 382 constraints on agricultural productivity, 52-58 credit access for small-scale farmers, 177 defined, 66 design and management considerations, 145-146 development assistance policies and, 51 diversification and, 3-4 enabling environment for, 174-180 environmental bottlenecks to, 290291 external factors in, 250 fertilizer use in, 380 and greenhouse gas emissions, 189190 incentives and opportunities for, 180-188 infrastructure investments and, 177-178 institutional and policy changes, 84-85
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From page 700... ...
, 333 Tax incentives and credits, 88, 164, 172 Tea plantations, 112 Technology agroindustrial, 294-295 and deforestation, 388 diffusion and utilization, 90, 295296, 60~606 interventions, 377-382, 388 local decision making on, 178-180 for reclamation of pastureland, 90, 91-92 and resource degradation, 9, 75 success factors, 148 and sustainable agriculture, 143, 377-382 Tectona spp., 115 Terrace systems, 7, 71, 74, 114, 147, 148 Thailand, 71, 86, 108, 232 Tillage practices, 158 Timber and timber products concessions, 167 economic importance of, 45, 402403 exploitation of, and deforestation, 164, 376-377, 510, 568-569 extraction of, 39, 129, 308-311, 595596; see also Logging; Natural forest management harvest intervals, 166 industrial roundwood production, 639 labor-based timber extraction, 595596 potential, 376-377 pricing reform, 165, 167, 607 species important for, 352 research needs, 311
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From page 701... ...
INDEX sustainability of extraction, 310-311 Trade reforms, 172 Transmigration and deforestation, 160, 411-413 and intensive cropping, 9, 75 and shifting cultivation, 9, 41~2, 59, 426-428 sustainable agriculture and, 160 Tree crop plantations, 136 age factors, 116 and biodiversity, 113, 450-451, 470471 biomass production in, 115, 116, 153, 229 common characteristics, 115, 140141, 142-143 and deforestation, 68, 413-415 ecologic benefits of, 29, 115-116, 140, 142, 143-144 and economic development, 11, 113, 329-330 economic feasibility of, 141, 142143, 461-463 environmental effects, 103, 113-114, 466-471 farm forestry, 582-583 and greenhouse gases, 229 inputs, 114 intercropping on, 229 investments for sustainability, 114115 land area, 115 management, 117-118 mixed, 107 monocultures, 101-102, 229 nutrient cycling in, 116, 140, 142, 157, 229 perennial, 6, 10, 11, 107, 110-115, 140-141, 142-144, 157, 582 policies affecting expansion of, 463-466 productivity, 115-116 prospects for, 471-473 research and development, 114115, 118 with secondary crops, 75 small-scale production, 101-102 and soil conservation, 467-468 species used in, 115, 117-118 701 sustainability of land use for, 10, 68, 110, 229, 459-461 uses, 115, 116, 117, 191 and water systems protection, 468470 Trees agroforestry species, 96-98, 330-331 alley cropping species, 52~525 biomass production, by species, 97 coppicing, 81, 96 for forest regeneration, 123 fruit, in humid tropics, 104 leguminous/nitrogen fixing, 79, 95, 96, 98 marketable species, 125-126, 333, 352 with negative effects on soils, 98-99 plantation species, 115, 116-117 from stem cuttings, 98 Trinidad, 130 Tropical Forestry Action Plan, 165166, 521-522 Tropical moist deciduous forests, extent of, 35 Tropical rain forests, extent of, 35 Tropical zone, forested bioclimes in, 28 Trypanosomiasis, 86-87 Tsetse fly control, 86, 87 U Uapaca togoensis, 353 Uganda, 130, 187 United Nations Development Program, 166 Environment Program, 154 Uplands/steeply sloping areas deforestation of, 45 intensive cropping systems on, 7273, 76 land use patterns on, 151, 249 livestock integration into farming in, 381, 601-602 no-tillage agriculture on, 185 soil conservation on, 76 terracing on, 148 Urban population, 24-26 Urucu, 330, 332
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From page 702... ...
, 82, 107 z Zaire advancement of agricultural frontiers, 645 agriculture, 156, 652-653 climate, 627 deforestation, 38, 641-649 extension service, 653 extractive reserves, 149 forest management, 130, 149, 637639, 652-653, 656 forest resource distribution, 635637 forest types, 626 fuelwood demand and harvesting, 191, 645-646 funding for sustainable management, 656 human resources development, 653-655 industrial roundwood production, 639 institutional arrangements and possible reforms, 649-652 land tenure, 627, 634, 656 logging, 640-641, 646-647 macroeconomic setting, 634- 635 natural resources, 625 population, 627, 634, 647-649 research agenda, 652-653 society and culture, 627, 634 sustainable management suggestions, 652-656 tax policies and investment procedures, 639-641
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From page 703... ...
, 106 pp., ISBN 0-30903596-1. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Revised Edition (1984)
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From page 704... ...
, 150 pp., ISBN 0-309-04266-6. Innovations in Tropical Forestry Mangium and Other Fast-Growing Acacias for the Humid Tropics (1983)
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