Fostering Transformative Research in the Geographical Sciences (2019) / Chapter Skim
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2 Recent Transformative Innovations in the Geographical Sciences
2 Recent Transformative Innovations in the Geographical Sciences
Pages 17-34
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From page 17... ...
TRANSFORMATIVE RESEARCH AND GENERAL MODELS OF THE DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION Many geographical scientists are aware of the treatises by philosophers such as Paul Feyerabend, Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos, and Karl Popper on the underlying nature of science and scientific revolutions. There is a long history of examining the geographical sciences in relation to such philosophical perspectives and debates (e.g., Bassett, 1999; Bird, 1977; Johnston, 1997; Mair, 1986; Wheeler, 1982)
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Data for a number of recent transformative research areas in the geographical sciences suggest some truth in the general model. Examples drawn from an n-gram analysis of published books in the Google database (Lin et al., 2012)
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From page 19... ...
. Transformative innovations can range from the relatively sudden appearance of revolutionary new ideas, such as the initial publications of Charles Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection or Louis Agassiz's glacial theories, to long-term incremental advances in tools, such as the progression from balloon photography to satellite remote sensing.
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Where might the biggest payoff and least risk be when attempting to identify and promote the innovation and diffusion of a promising transformative research idea? It is typically difficult to identify a successful innovation in its earliest stages of development.
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The individuals or groups who are responsible for the invention and early-stage innovation of the five transformative research areas discussed here come from both within and outside the academic discipline of the geographical sciences, and indeed in some cases from outside the traditional academic-research sphere altogether. It is recognized and argued here that attribution of important and transformative research ideas to any individual or one seminal piece of work is often impossible; and it is equally impossible to identify all individuals responsible.
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. Spatial Social Theory Spatial social theory is another transformative research area for which disciplines such as sociology acknowledge a strong debt to the geographical sciences.
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As the innovation of spatial social theory progressed, geographical scientists such as Kay Anderson, Peter Jackson, Linda McDowell, and others expanded beyond the political economy context of class to include issues of spatial structure in the context of social constructions of race (Anderson, 1987; Jackson, 1987) and gender (Massey, 1994; McDowell, 1993)
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. Unlike political ecology, the inception of environmental remote sensing cannot be said to have been instigated by a small group of seminal figures, but rather has been "big science" and "big technology" from the start, with a host of innovators working to create the broad spectrum of innovations that collectively gave rise to this research area.
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From page 25... ...
These databases were made publicly accessible and gave enormous stimulus to geographical scientists, who could now readily use mapping software and census data to create new knowledge about human geography. Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER)
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. Geographical scientists were also leaders in developing the multifaceted synthesis and analysis of how human activity, across a broad range of physical and biological systems including climate, had changed and was changing the face of the Earth (Thomas et al., 1956; Turner et al., 1990)
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As a result, Kates could be considered the pivotal figure for geographical scientists in research on the impacts of climate change. Meanwhile geographical scientists were taking the results of climate projections and connecting them to potential impacts on society, including agriculture, water, ecosystems, and urban areas, with a key volume edited by Kates, Climate and Society: Lessons from Recent Events (Kates, 1979)
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From page 28... ...
Important mechanisms of diffusion and development of the transformative research areas outlined above are provided below. Political Ecology and Spatial Social Theory Face-to-face meetings and direct communication between developers and early adopters were critical in the cases of political ecology and spatial social theory.
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However, as with political ecology and spatial social theory, publications regarding GIS or using GIS transcend these venues.
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Political ecology and spatial social theory have relied on traditional academic research grant programs and foundations, as well as international development funds. Institutional structures play a role in environmental remote sensing, GIS, and global climate change.
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Census Bureau data for spatial social theory and GIS research, and the similar availability of Landsat data for environmental remote sensing and the NOAA weather and climate data for global climate change research, are invaluable for the development and diffusion of these transformative research areas. Spatial social theory, environmental remote sensing, and GIS research areas have all benefited from coordinated and long-term "big science" support, yet political ecology has demonstrated that not all transformative research in the geographical sciences must involve such levels.
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Political ecology was driven by critical ideas rather than being dependent on technology. In addition, the fundamentals of Marxist political economy that were at the root of political ecology's early conceptions were already a century old when this transformative research area was being formulated.
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One factor that is critical in the histories of all of these transformative research areas is the power of the open model of innovation in generating positive feedback and synergy between diffusion and further development. The often informal networks of scholars working on political ecology and spatial social theory certainly helped the early development of these fields.
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From page 34... ...
Putting It Together: The Recipe for Transformative Research Taken together, the five case studies presented in this chapter suggest that the innovation of past transformative research in the geographical sciences has occurred when talented individuals have had exposure to diverse research perspectives and approaches and have tackled questions of multidisciplinary and societal importance. The diversity of experience that engendered this innovation included work with other disciplines and often outside of academia.
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