Traveler Response to Transportation System Changes Handbook, Third Edition: Chapter 16, Pedestrian and Bicycle Facilities (2012) / Chapter Skim
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From page 34... ...
also saw a 7 percent gain in target area walk counts. Counts obtained for Portland's 2007 and 2008 programs showed target area bicycle volume net increases of 8 to 14 percent after adjustment for substantial citywide bicycling increases.
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course occur with or without paved sidewalks or paths. People also walk on roads, shoulders, and unpaved areas.
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16-36 Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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Four out of the five cases in Table 16-1 (all except the 3rd entry) offer quantified observations of pedestrian usage shifts.
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16-38 Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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16-39 Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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16-40 9 An attempt at city-wide before-and-after analysis of pedestrian system improvements has been underway as part of the five-city Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program Evaluation Study, with findings publication scheduled for after a 2010 follow-up survey (Krizek et al., 2007)
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Almost every walk activity parameter presented in Table 16-3 progresses steadily downward from traditional to late modern neighborhood types. However, statistical significance (taking into account all six neighborhoods individually)
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A San Francisco Bay Area study of trip tours involving a pharmacy shopping stop among the tour's activity stops (2nd entry in Table 16-2) provides a finding similar to that of the Austin studies in that sidewalk coverage did not achieve statistical significance or contribute to any of the three mixed-logit mode choice models developed.
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borhood commercial district in those cases where blocks are small and the sidewalk system is largely complete. The last five studies summarized in Table 16-2, the 10th through 14th entries, are child-oriented active transportation studies.
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Residential and Mixed-Use Traffic Calming Traffic calming in the United States has tended to focus narrowly on crash prevention, whereas in Europe this objective has been joined for some time by other objectives including enhancement of walking and bicycling (Ewing, 2008)
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walking between stores (Schneider, 2011)
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adult cyclists, likely because they bicycle faster and thus surprise motorists at points of conflict (Wachtel and Lewiston, 1994, Turner et al., 2006)
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76 percent of trips required crossing streets and 53 percent involved crossing at intersections (NuStats International, 1998)
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16-48 Table 16-5 Summary of Before and After Studies and Research Findings on Relationships between Street Crossing Provisions and Walking/Biking Activity Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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16-49 Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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Crosswalks and Traffic Controls Pedestrian Crossings. The first-listed research in Table 16-5 is a before-and-after study, covering four U.S.
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The 5th table entry is of special interest because it covers, apparently with "before and after" evaluation, a sector approach to crossing improvements. When one-way circulation was reversed in the Shoreditch Triangle, an East London arts and entertainment destination adjoining the financial district, pedestrian needs were examined in terms of desire lines and pedestrian concentrations.
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From page 52... ...
out of their way to avoid one more stop sign per mile, and 2.5 percent to avoid one more traffic signal per mile. (Cyclists apparently do not like turns in their route, either: it is estimated that they will go 6.5 percent out of the way to avoid one more turn per mile.)
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From page 53... ...
As with other pedestrian and bicycle facilities, travel time is an important determinant of use. Those facilities where land uses or topography permit direct connections without large up or down grade changes may be the most successful (Zehnpfenning et al., 1993, Moore and Older, 1965)
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From page 54... ...
as potential pedestrian and bicyclist use of grade separations bridging barriers of long standing can be clearly seen in innovative approaches such as New Jersey's efforts to prioritize pedestrian and bicycle crossings using such tools as pedestrian potential indices, bicycle demand models, and GIS systems (Swords et al., 2004)
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posing a small-area network of pedestrian streets in an urban commercial core. In most countries, enhancing central area commerce has been the main impetus, although Sweden is reported to have placed priority on enhancing pedestrian and traffic flow and safety.
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pedestrian zone is actually characterized by the narrowness of streets so common in European applications. At critical points in the core retail district, original sidewalk widths averaging 9 to 10 feet had effective widths of only 5–6 feet because of obstructions.
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From page 57... ...
Limited information is also available on effects of overseas pedestrian zone implementations, but must be inferred from available retail sales statistics. Sales increased by 30 percent on Copenhagen's Stroget, actually three contiguous streets in the main shopping district, after it was closed to motor vehicles in 1962.
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Another pedestrian street examined in 1988 and found not to be doing well was Westminster Mall in Providence, Rhode Island. Highly active between 11:00 AM and 3:00 PM thanks to workers from the nearby financial district, the mall was relatively deserted otherwise, and devoid of use after 5:00 PM.
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economics and mall vitality, "the most successful malls .
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study, under "More .
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bus runs, 88 percent had been concentrated on the two mall streets. An average of 13 passengers boarded or alighted at each bus at each stop along the mall in the PM rush hour.
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"Green Light for Midtown," the name given to New York City's pilot project for Broadway in Midtown Manhattan, may seem an odd name for a project involving extensive areas of pedestrian mall (labeled "plazas")
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The term "shared mall" has not been applied here to the partial-mall blocks given the lack of overt traffic calming, although the remaining traffic lane(s) do generally have parking on both sides.
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The central area pedestrianization project in Oxford, England, employed separate approaches on three different streets, as delineated in Table 16-7. The street closed to all traffic, Cornmarket Street, is a major shopping street.
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Skyway system bridge crossings. Average December/July daily Skyway crossings were 10,100 in 1969 with two bridges and 11,600 in 1974 on nine of 10 bridges, with the excluded bridge functioning primarily as an intra-hotel facility.
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downtown Minneapolis bridges was 14,400 pedestrians (actually within the core area if one assumes it has shifted one block south over time) to 400 pedestrians (Bruce, 2002a, 2009, and 2002b; Case Study, "50 years of Downtown NMT Facility Provisions -- Minneapolis")
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From page 67... ...
trians and the variations which do occur in response to outside temperature. Preference for skywalk over sidewalk was reported by 72 to 100 percent of survey respondents except in Duluth, the northernmost city surveyed, where a warm day was cause for preferring the outdoors (Robertson, 1993 and 1994)
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Skyways were installed in conjunction with urban redevelopment, inclusive of the new retail core, and that it was this urban redevelopment that moved much of the retail up to the second level (Heglund, 2004)
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muters on the one hand to inexperienced recreational cyclists on the other. There is also the complexity introduced by need to get between specific points when bicycling for utilitarian purposes.
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reported results for facility type preferences, one found a preference for bicycling on residential streets and an aversion to cycling alongside parked cars. It also estimated that either bicycle lanes or off-road facilities added value, with the greater added value for bicycle lanes.
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mileage actually accumulated on different types of facilities compared to the mileage that would be accumulated if all cyclists making utilitarian trips followed a minimum distance path. It shows the surveyed adult bicyclists overall rode 4 percentage points more miles on bike lanes than minimumdistance routings would suggest, 6 percentage points more miles on bicycle boulevards, and 8 percentage points more miles on off-road trails.
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Bicycle Lane and Route User Makeup. The user makeup of bicycle lanes, as compared to other types of facilities, may possibly be tilted toward use by adults commuting to work.
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16-73 Table 16-11 Summary of Before and After Studies of Individual and System Bicycle Lane Provision Examples Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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16-74 Table 16-11 (Continued) Study (Date)
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The 4th through 9th Table 16-11 entries, if one combines the three San Francisco studies into one data point, offer straightforward combined count-based examples from four North American cities (see Table 16-11 for sources)
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mode shifts to bicycle riding are brought about by bicycle lane introduction. In this research, 1990 and 2000 bicycle mode shares were obtained from U.S.
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cent average increase for the bicycle lane commutersheds and a 43 percent increase for the off-road trail commutersheds. The absolute mode share gains in commuter bicycling were, however, essentially identical.
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effects are impossible to disentangle from the bike lanes mode share effects. It may be noted, however, that the percentage point bicycle mode share gains were 45 percent greater within the defined bicycle lane commutersheds than for the city of Chicago as a whole (Cleaveland and Douma, 2009)
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From page 79... ...
California, after installation of bike lanes on Anderson Road (1st entry in Table 16-11) , only seven bicyclists were estimated to be of age 11 and under, while 41 were judged to be between 12 and 17 years of age, out of 1,577 on Anderson during 3 peak-period hours.
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16-80 Table 16-14 Summary of Research Findings on the Relationships of Bicycle Lane and Other Facility Prevalence with Cycling Activity Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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All four national research efforts found a strong positive association between bicycle facility coverage and bicycle use for commuting to work. The quantitative relationships derived, and other factors found to have an influence, are enumerated in the "Key Findings" column of Table 16-14.
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Indeed it was observed above, with respect to the 1990–2000 decade in Minneapolis-St. Paul, that the corridors where bicycle lanes and off-road trails were built tended to have substantially higher bicycle commuting shares to start with.
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vards, and streets that have been simply signed as bike routes. The available traveler response research on these options is relatively limited, either because they are somewhat new concepts -- especially in a U.S.
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From page 84... ...
Interconnections" subsection under "River Bridges and Other Linkages" -- "Other River Bridges." Two different analysis approaches indicated that the change from mixed-use sidewalks to segregated cycle-track equivalents increased bicycling by 26 percent (count-based results) to perhaps a doubling of bicycle-use incidence by bridge neighbors (survey results)
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may be explained by attributes [.
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From page 86... ...
from 475 to 725, the Bryant Street PBIC case study author surmised that commuter and other utilitarian bicycling had declined in the two decades since the peak of the 1970s gas crises, and that more parents were chauffeuring their children to school by auto (Ciccarelli, 2010)
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From page 87... ...
The Salmon Street study author identifies potential survey biases, but if there were no response bias at all in the survey, the identified bicycling rate would be nearly 7 times national averages. The Salmon Street analysis itself reports a work commute bicycling rate comparison that suggests the Salmon Street rate may be on the order of 10 times the citywide bicycle commute mode share (VanZerr, 2010)
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From page 88... ...
More volume data should become available from the "National Bicycle and Pedestrian Documentation Project" or similar endeavors as they mature (see the "Additional Resources" section)
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Shared Use, Off-Road Paths and Trails The off-road, shared use facilities addressed in this subsection are the counterpart to the combination of sidewalks, on-road bicycle lanes, and shared-roadway bicycle-preference treatments covered in previous subsections. Shared use paths accommodate pedestrians (inclusive of manual and motorized wheelchairs)
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From page 90... ...
A relevant circumstance affecting all facility types is that selection of a facility type for implementation will often be dictated by individual geographic, physical, and/or traffic conditions. Those, in turn, will be determined by the potential trip origins and destinations proposed to be served.
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From page 91... ...
ational travel in the data set. At the end of this discussion, estimates of the price elasticity of demand for recreational use of off-road trail facilities based on distance of travel to the facility are presented.
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From page 92... ...
The previously-introduced intercept-survey-based analysis of users of Hennepin County offstreet trails within Minneapolis likewise covered all travel purposes over both weekdays and weekends, but was restricted to users making their entire trip via bicycle. Over half the cyclists traveled less than 2.5 km.
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From page 93... ...
to cost that is close to some other important transportation price elasticities, most notably the average fare elasticity for public bus transit ridership. Shared Use Path Implementation Facilities that are altogether new when implemented, such as most shared use paths are, present an analytical challenge in that there is no route-specific "before" data with which to compare.
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16-94 Table 16-16 Summary of Retrospective and Before and After Studies of Individual Shared Use Path Implementation Examples Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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16-95 Table 16-16 (Continued) Study (Date)
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dominated by cycling -- together with skating -- on the semi-rural Cardinal Greenway rail-trail in Muncie (Indiana University, 2001)
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their alternative mode for their trip, assuming the path did not exist, was auto (Welzenbach, 1996)
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The sharp growth in trail use by bicycles in the 1985–1995 period has been ascribed to the interconnection of the Burke-Gilman and Sammamish River Trails, accomplished in two stages, in 1988 and 1993 (Moritz, 1995, Puget Sound Regional Council, 2000)
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From page 99... ...
The Saturday surveys from 1985 to 2000 show trends fairly consistent with the weekday survey respondent trip purpose patterns. The recreation/exercise proportion declined from 98 to 79 percent.
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The Burke-Gilman/Sammamish River Trails surveys have identified quite high trip lengths. May 1990 reported Tuesday and Saturday on-trail trip distance medians were 5 and 14 miles, respectively (Moritz, 1995)
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commuting, are oriented toward downtown and university employment areas, and are integrated into a well-establish network (Cleaveland and Douma, 2009)
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From page 102... ...
increases reflect not only the direct effect of trail-improvement but also the interconnectivity effect of providing a better linkage between the preexisting fully developed sections. The 9th Table 16-16 entry simply serves to illustrate that "build it and they will come" is not always a certainty.
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From page 103... ...
aggregate and disaggregate. There have been four nationwide aggregate analyses in the 20 years from 1992 to 2011 that have investigated the impact of bike lane and path system extent on bicycling rates, using U.S.
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16-104 Table 16-19 Summary of Research Findings on the Relationships of Shared Use Path Proximity and Prevalence with Walking and Cycling Activity Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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From page 105... ...
The studies in Table 16-19 represent regional and community cross-sectional research, along with a comparative study, focused on learning about path system coverage effects from analysis of systems in place. The studies range in complexity from detailed statistical evaluations to a multi-community comparison of schoolchild travel modes conducted by the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR)
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From page 106... ...
Expenditures on trails showed a positive, although not statistically significant relationship with walking in both cities. A positive relationship with bicycling in Baltimore was statistically significant for both 1/4 and 1/2 mile buffers along trails that were financed.
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From page 107... ...
Overall Systems and System Expansions Recognizing the contribution of all interconnected NMT system elements, overall system effects -- enabled in part by connectivity measures -- are reviewed first. This review is accomplished by recapping and adding to key overall systems studies presented elsewhere within this chapter, either in preceding facility impact or in upcoming policy impact discussions.
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From page 108... ...
Facility Density and Connectivity. The 1st entry in Table 16-20 summarizes four key studies on the relationship between extent of bicycle system coverage and choice of the bicycle mode for commuting to work.
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From page 109... ...
in 1992, major pedestrian and bicycle improvements were made to four key central area bridges, as covered below in the "River Bridges and Other Linkages" discussion. Bikeways in Portland include bike lanes, bicycle boulevards, and shared-use paths.
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From page 110... ...
16-110 Figure 16-2 Work-purpose walk mode share to Brisbane CBD and CBD fringe, 1986–2006. Source: Modelling, Data and Analysis Centre, Transport and Main Roads, Queensland Government (formerly Queensland Transport)
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From page 111... ...
16-111 Figure 16-3 Work-purpose bicycle mode share to Brisbane CBD and CBD fringe, 1986–2006. Source: Modelling, Data and Analysis Centre, Transport and Main Roads, Queensland Government (formerly Queensland Transport)
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From page 112... ...
Figures 16-2 and 16-3 depict the walk mode shares and bicycle mode shares, respectively, for journey-to-work trips from individual analysis districts to the Brisbane CBD and CBD fringe in 1986, 1996, and 2006. Overall shares to the CBD and fringe for these and intermediate years are tabulated, and additional interpretation is provided, in the "NMT Policies and Programs" subsection under "New World Program Examples" -- "Brisbane, Australia" (see in Table 16-45)
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From page 113... ...
16-113 Table 16-21 Summary of Studies on the Travel Effects of Providing Pedestrian/Bicycle Bridges and Other Linkages Between and Within Ped/Bike Systems Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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16-114 Table 16-21 (Continued) Study (Date)
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16-115 Table 16-21 (Continued) Study (Date)
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Table 16-22 also provides daily bicycle volumes on each of the four principal bicycle-carrying bridges in the central Portland area. These volumes are primarily estimated from 2-hour weekday peak period counts and thus tend to emphasize commuter use shifts.
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The daily four-bridge bicycle crossing increase (including Steel Bridge) was 140 percent over the 12 years covered in Table 16-22.
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16-118 The data obtained in these two weeks of counts show weekly use to have averaged 57,270 pedestrians and bicyclists. The weekday average was 8,629 with 81 percent walking and 19 percent bicycling.
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The travel purpose distributions exhibit a high proportion of commuters among bridge users. The survey protocol included as "commuters" students attending classes.
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may in part reflect the relative newness of the bridge, but probably is also an indicator that bridge use is motivated in part by its being a stimulating destination in its own right and not simply a means to an end (see "Underlying Traveler Response Factors" -- "Behavioral Paradigms")
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From page 121... ...
gested that 14 to 18 percent of weekday users and 28 percent of Saturday users would not have made their trip by bicycle without the Greenway Bridge. These trips were most commonly recreational trips; nevertheless, a reduction of more than 500 automobile trips per week by 1978 bridge users was estimated.
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From page 122... ...
the safety improvements in particular. Burrard Bridge is the westernmost of three crossings of False Creek from southern city neighborhoods into downtown Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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The 10th entry in Table 16-21 involves another ped-bike crossing serving as an attraction in its own right, this one a 2.7-mile sidewalk/path constructed as an integral part of a new South Carolina bridge over the Cooper River and Charleston harbor, connecting Mt. Pleasant and Charleston.
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From page 124... ...
final gap closure periods. The findings of huge positive impact are muddied somewhat by inability of the combined trails to sustain the trail traffic levels achieved in 1995 on through the 2000 and 2005 count years, an outcome discussed more extensively in the previous "Shared Use, Off-Road Paths and Trails" subsection under "Shared Use Path Implementation" -- "Seattle Urban/Suburban Trails." A second example of path interconnection is provided by the joining of the Centenary and Western Freeway Bikeways in Brisbane, Australia, in late 2006 (12th entry, Table 16-21)
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From page 125... ...
tant as they may be. Three sets of observations offering clues as to the importance of local-scale interconnections are presented here.
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Washington, region. Utilizing measures of walking and driving directness to nearby retail and recreational destinations, they determined that when pedestrian and vehicle connectivity were both high, the pedestrian mode share was about 14 percent.
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Less often encountered is sub-mode share, the proportion of transit trips using a particular form of transit, such as local bus or heavy rail transit (HRT)
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Hartford, Connecticut, bus route. Riders were surveyed to obtain demographic and travel pattern information.
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16-129 Figure 16-4 Commute trip mode of access from home to urban BART stations. Source: Parsons Brinckerhoff et al.
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16-130 Table 16-26 Summary of Research Findings and Other Studies on Relationships of Transit Service Levels and NMT Access Quality with Walk and Walk/Transit Activity Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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16-131 Table 16-26 (Continued) Study (Date)
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16-132 Table 16-27 Walk Access Versus Journey-to-work Mode Share, Orange County, California Percent of Population within Walking Distance Total Workers Bus Riders Drive Alone Carpool Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 80 – 100 129,629 10,278 7.9 82,683 63.8 26,958 20.8 60 – 80 213,088 7,013 3.3 160,934 75.5 31,645 14.9 40 – 60 276,417 7,908 2.9 215,343 77.9 38,551 13.9 20 – 40 223,432 3,088 1.4 187,073 83.7 25,154 11.3 10 – 20 166,012 872 0.5 143,160 86.2 16,797 10.1 Total 1,008,578 29,159 2.9 789,193 78.2 139,105 13.8 Source: Hsaio et al.
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From page 133... ...
The 10th entry in Table 16-26 introduces a mode of access modeling research effort that included a review of past mode of access models. The review is summarized in Table 16-28 along with the researchers' own Caltrain commuter rail access model, derived from their survey of Mountain View, California, station arrivals.
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From page 134... ...
16-134 researchers note that such a street can be either a deterrent to walking or bicycling, or an encouragement to drive, or both. The other significant Caltrain model indicator of pedestrian/bicycle friendly environment is the number of four-way intersections per square mile in the home Census tract (Park and Kang, 2008)
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From page 135... ...
16-135 Table 16-29 Summary of Research Findings and Other Studies on Relationships of Bicycle Access Quality and Bicycle Parking with Bike-Transit Activity Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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From page 136... ...
Additional details of the Chicago area rail transit access behavioral modeling are of interest for the insights provided on primary mode and access mode shift potentials. The separate models for Metra and CTA, when applied for improved bicycle parking and access, predicted Metra bike mode of access choice to increase from 2.1 percent to 3.2 percent for home-based trips originating within 2 miles of the station.
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vided racks at a number of its stations: 22 racks in total (Hagelin, 2002)
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16-138 on parking them at ordinary transit stops. A return-on-investment analysis and related studies have found that despite considerable bike-on-transit activity, investment in bike parking at bus stops and even many rail stations has been low.
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Prime Mode Share Observations. The 1st and 2nd studies listed in Table 16-30 are each comparative in structure.
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commute mode. In the Pleasant Hill case, a full range of TOD amenities is apparently found only for the specific projects constructed on former park-and-ride lot land areas.
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areas was over 90 percent, and the walk access shares for eight Portland TODs ranged from 69 to 100 percent (Lund, Cervero, and Willson, 2004, Dill, 2006b) .32 The 4th study in Table 16-30 illustrates, using Chicago commuter railroad passenger survey responses, how the inherent transit adjacency of TOD produces enhanced walk access shares.
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From page 142... ...
County Transportation Authority bus system in Burlington, Vermont -- illustrating that location in the sunbelt is not a prerequisite for above-average attraction of bike-on-transit riders. The two operators at the 50th percentile (median)
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16-143 Table 16-32 Summary of Before and After Studies and Research Findings on Relationships of Accommodations for Bicycles on Transit Vehicles with Bicycling Activity Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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Bike-on-Bus Programs. The Phoenix, Arizona, area bike-on-bus program, overseen by the Valley Metro Regional Public Transportation Authority, is of special interest given both data availability and the consistent offer of bike-on-bus service for almost two decades.
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From page 145... ...
The data in Table 16-33 is indicative of a plateauing from 2002 to 2006 in growth of the percentage of Phoenix passengers boarding with bikes. This plateauing, at about 2 percent, is in turn suggestive of either full market penetration or capacity constraint effects.
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during the demonstration along with trailer use. The percentage of riders using a bike to access the bus was 1.5 percent in 1978, 12 percent in 1979, and 23 percent in 1980.
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The two larger of these systems, HART (Tampa region)
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From page 148... ...
Table 16-35 also provides a comparison between Miami-Dade bike-on-bus access distances and walkto-transit access distances (1st versus 3rd rows of mileage entries -- rows not shaded)
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The 4th and 5th entries in Table 16-32 serve to give some additional breadth to the coverage of bikeon-bus, illustrating the range operations with examples from California's Coachella Valley (1.7 percent bike-on-bus in 2003) to Denver, Colorado.
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at or above capacity for some time, with just under 2,000 daily trips. A special all-day survey in September 2007 counted 51 bicycles "bumped" (turned away)
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smaller (Steve Spindler Cartography, 2010)
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and on-site or nearby. The facilities may be exclusive to the purpose or may have dual use.
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16-153 Table 16-36 Summary of Studies on the Travel Effects of Providing Bicycle Parking and Shower/Change Facilities Study (Date) Action Key Findings 1.
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Canadian and U.K. research on importance of bicycle parking and showers is covered in the 4th and 5th table entries.
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From page 155... ...
increase in days per month of bicycle commuting was seen (RTC and APBP, 1998, City of Portland, 2001)
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"Sidewalk Coverage and Traffic Conditions" (see 1st entry in Table 16-2 and related discussion)
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From page 157... ...
The market penetration of public bikesharing systems is rapidly evolving, making tabulations such as that presented in Table 16-37 only a snapshot in time. Technology adoption lifecycle research by Everett Rogers and colleagues in the last half of the 20th Century identified a course of innovation adoption that follows a "bell curve" or normal distribution.
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2009, three large-scale U.S. services were implemented in 2010 (DeMaio and Meddin, 2010)
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From page 159... ...
cent of respondents indicating use of Vélib "to begin and to end their multi-leg transit trip," with 48 percent overall reporting reduced private vehicle use (DeMaio, 2009)
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From page 160... ...
with an NMT-specific extraction from the Chapter 15 material itself. The five syntheses primarily address land use, transportation, and public health.
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From page 161... ...
16-161 Table 16-38 Relationships between Pedestrian- and Bicycle-Friendly Neighborhood (NBH) Characteristics and Walking/ Bicycling, Summarized from Key Syntheses Study (Date)
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From page 162... ...
to Transportation System Changes" Handbook because they are treated as a given. Socio-economic effects on walking and bicycling are primarily examined in the "Underlying Traveler Response Factors" section under "User Factors." The positive effect on bicycling of one example of workplace travel demand management (TDM)
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From page 163... ...
elasticities for density per se is that density not well integrated into the urban fabric -- such as apartments in the middle of auto-oriented suburban sprawl -- will not offer a full measure of beneficial effects on VMT, transit use, or walking and bicycling for transportation. Three of nine reviews published between 2002 and 2006 (Table 16-38, 2nd entry)
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16-164 Table 16-39 Summary of Primary Comparative Observations from Chapter 15 on Impacts of Density, Diversity (Mix) , and Design on Walking/Bicycling Study (Date)
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16-165 Table 16-39 (Continued) Study (Date)
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16-166 Table 16-39 (Continued) Study (Date)
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From page 167... ...
Diversity and design are, in the meta-analysis elasticities derivations (Table 16-38, 1st entry) , both more strongly related to prevalence and mode choice of walk trips than density.
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From page 168... ...
Additional findings concerning land use diversity (and density) impacts in selected individual studies are shown at the outset of Table 16-40.
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From page 169... ...
16-169 Table 16-40 Selection of Additional Findings from Transportation and Physical Activity Research on Relationships between Pedestrian- and Bicycle-Friendly Neighborhood (NBH) Characteristics and Adult Walking/Bicycling Study (Date)
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16-170 Table 16-40 (Continued) Study (Date)
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From page 171... ...
The walking-focused King County, Washington, study (Table 16-40, 1st entry) , using highly disaggregated data on trip origin and destination characteristics along with information on conditions en route, is notable for isolating impacts largely consistent with the larger body of research on land use effects.
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From page 172... ...
No objectively-measured infrastructure or route-related characteristics showed significant associations with cycling except for closeness to an off-road trail, which was a positive. Indeed, it was found that 33 percent of cyclists -- as compared to 17 percent of non-cyclists -- had considered recreational amenities when choosing their current residence.
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From page 173... ...
Six of nine reviews published in the 2002–2006 period (Table 16-38, 2nd entry) pointed to aesthetics, or attractiveness of the environment, as being associated positively with walking.
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From page 174... ...
Other "D's" The two additional "D's" covered here are destination accessibility and distance to transit. Destination accessibility is a measure of ease of access to jobs, shopping, and other non-home destinations -- "attractions" in demand modeling parlance.
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From page 175... ...
Overall Neighborhood Environment The meta-analysis derivation of built environment elasticities (see Table 16-38, 1st entry, and Table 16-42) found them all to be inelastic -- the impact always proportionally less than the stimulus provided by changing any one particular land use or urban design characteristic.
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From page 176... ...
Three of nine reviews published in the 2002–2006 period (Table 16-38, 2nd entry) concluded that neighborhood-based composite walkability measures were positively correlated with walking (Saelens and Handy, 2008)
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Two studies examined in the SUNY synthesis examined possible links between population density and ATS. One found no significant association when considering densities in the immediate area around children's homes.
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16-178 Table 16-41 Selection of Additional Findings from Transportation and Physical Activity Research on Relationships between Pedestrian- and Bicycle-Friendly Neighborhood (NBH) Characteristics and Child Walking/Bicycling Study (Date)
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From page 179... ...
Having local schools -- drawing students from smaller areas -- likewise helps provide shorter walk and bike travel times, leading to increased use of active transportation for school access (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003)
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From page 180... ...
The researchers averaged elasticities within each category, such as the elasticity of walking to job density, using averaging weighted by study sample size. The number of suitable studies available for each included category ranged from three to 10.
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From page 181... ...
NMT Policies and Programs Instances of city-wide policy in support of NMT are found throughout the world. The results from Europe tend to be the most dramatic, but questions about transferability of findings to New World auto-oriented environments persist.
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From page 182... ...
specifying that local jurisdictions should spend a minimum of 1 percent of transportation funding on bicycling (Alliance for Biking & Walking, 2010)
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From page 183... ...
Corroborating the increases seen in the 1990s bicycle counts, U.S. Census data for 1990 and 2000 show overall Portland bicycle commute shares growing from approximately 1 percent to 3 percent, with more dramatic increases in the dense, flat, neighborhoods of the inner city.
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From page 184... ...
Anecdotally, it is understood that Davis is a city where "ordinary Americans" can and will ride a bike for their daily travel needs. Davis provides a unique sequence of lessons, in that the bicycle program reached its zenith in the latter half of the 20th Century, and now the effects of program maturity and even decline may be observed.
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16-185 Table 16-43 Five Decades of Bicycle Policy and Outcomes in Davis, California Epochs Status and Actions Active Transportation Outcomes Pre-1964 (Pre-Cityprogram) 1960 Davis pop.
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Boulder, Colorado. The policy and program focus in the City of Boulder, Colorado, differs from Portland and Davis in that it effectively addresses in one Transportation Master Plan (TMP)
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16-187 Table 16-44 Modal Shift Summaries for Various Boulder Travel Categories, ca. 1990–2006 Travel Mode Travel Category Walk Bike Transit Total Active School Bus SOV MOV Total Auto All Trips by Residents 1990 mode share 18.2% 9.1% 1.6% 28.9% 0.6% 44.2% 26.3% 70.5% 2006 mode share 18.9% 13.6% 4.0% 36.5% 0.1% 38.4% 25.0% 63.4% Percentage point change +0.7% +4.5% +2.4% +7.6% -0.5% -5.8% -1.3% -7.1% Percent gain/loss +4% +49% +150% +26% -83% -13% -5% -10% Travel Miles by Residents 1990 mode share 3.0% 4.9% 4.1% 12.0% 0.2% 50.0% 37.7% 87.7% 2006 mode share 3.7% 7.2% 5.7% 16.6% 0.1% 46.9% 36.3% 83.2% Percentage point change +0.7% +2.3% +1.6% +4.6% -0.1% -3.1% -1.4% -4.5% Percent gain/loss +23% +47% +39% +38% -50% -6% -4% -5% Work Trips by Residents 1990 mode share 8.9% 10.6% 4.0% 23.5% 0.0% 66.6% 9.9% 76.5% 2006 mode share 11.0% 20.5% 5.1% 36.6% 0.0% 52.7% 10.7% 63.4% Percentage point change +2.1% +9.9% +1.1% +13.1% 0.0% -13.9% +0.8% -13.1% Percent gain/loss +24% +93% +28% +56% 0.0% -21% +8% -17% Work Trips by Employees Other 1991 mode share 3.5% 8.4% 1.7% 13.6% 1.6% a 73.0% 11.8% 84.8% 2005 mode share 2.8% 3.5% 9.5% 15.8% 6.9% b 69.0% 8.3% 77.3% Percentage point change -0.7% -4.9% +7.8% +2.2% +2.3% a -4.0% -3.5% -7.5% Percent gain/loss -20% -58% +459% +16% +144% a -5% -30% -9% Employee Midday Trips 1991 mode share 6.6% 5.3% 1.2% 13.1% n/a 68.2% 18.8% 87.0% 2005 mode share 10.1% 3.6% 3.4% 17.1% 0.9% 68.9% 13.1% 82.0% Percentage point change +3.5% -1.7% +2.2% +4.0% n/a +0.7% -5.7% -5.0% Percent gain/loss +53% -32% +183% +30% n/a +1% -30% -6% Notes: a Work at home.
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From page 188... ...
36.5 percent) , equating to a 26 percent increase.
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From page 189... ...
mode shares from 9.1 to 13.6 percent produces a log arc elasticity of +1.17, a value that is both elastic (very sensitive) and substantially higher than other bicycle facility-extent elasticities available.
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From page 190... ...
The mode share results for work purpose commuting to the Brisbane CBD and CBD fringe, from Figures 16-2 and 16-3, are summarized below in Table 16-45 with intervening years included. Further information on effects of opening the Goodwill Bridge component of the overall system is provided in the earlier systems and interconnections discussion under "River Bridges and Other Linkages." 16-190 Table 16-45 Work Purpose Trip Walk and Bicycle Mode Shares to the Brisbane CBD and CBD Fringe 1986–2006 Year Walk Mode Share Overall Bicycle Mode Share North South & West Overall 1986 5.9% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 1991 7.1 0.9 1.2 1.1 1996 7.6 1.0 1.8 1.5 2001 10.5 1.9 3.1 2.5 2006 17.4 2.2 3.7 3.0 Notes: Data is for census journey-to-work trips to the Brisbane, Australia, CBD and CBD fringe from city and suburbs within roughly 6 km.
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From page 191... ...
A concern often expressed with such U.S.-European comparisons is that the dense urban conditions in many European cities simply cannot be found or reasonably anticipated in most American urban areas. Such issues lessen the utility of aggregate level cross-county comparisons.
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From page 192... ...
over age 65, while cycling drops precipitously. Again, the inference is that pedestrian and bicycle system quality and supportive enforcement policy, as provided by Germany and the Netherlands, make older persons as comfortable engaging in active transportation as those more youthful (Pucher and Dijkstra, 2003)
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From page 193... ...
exposition is provided in the "Underlying Traveler Response Factors" section (see "Trip Factors" -- "Walk Trip Distance, Time, and Route Characteristics" -- "Walk Trip Speeds and Lengths")
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From page 194... ...
walking or bicycling. In 2009, only 10.2 percent of children reached school independent of vehicle use, a quartering of NMT school access in 40 years (Kuzmyak et al., 2011)
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16-195 Table 16-50 Summary of Research Findings on Programs Seeking to Increase Grade School through Middle School Student Use of Non-Motorized Travel Study (Date) Program (Analytical Process)
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16-196 Table 16-50 (Continued) Study (Date)
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From page 197... ...
to school. Elementary schools with projects within or close to 1/4 mile of the school were selected for study.
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From page 198... ...
All results reported in Table 16-51 are in the expected direction, that of more walking and cycling to school, except for the count results at the San Bernardino countdown-signal location. Not all differences reported are statistically significant, however, and consideration of "walk less" survey results rendered the Murrieta school survey findings inconclusive.
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From page 199... ...
Not included in the tabulations or discussion above are a painted and signed crosswalk installation as part of the overall Yucaipa project and installation of on-street bicycle lanes at the Murrieta school. The standard crosswalk installation produced no significant effects, although modest increases in yielding were observed.
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From page 200... ...
were surveyed again in 2001–2002. On the plus side, the overall survey findings and outcomes for those two schools were found to be similar.
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From page 201... ...
the "contemplation" stage of school-access mode-shift decisionmaking, and to address inertia and fear of the unknown during the "contemplation," "preparation," and "action" stages. (The stages referred to here are presented in the "Attitudes and Modal Biases" discussion of the "Other Factors and Factor Combinations" subsection, within the "Underlying Traveler Response Factors" section.)
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From page 202... ...
At the core of the research was in-depth case study of five WSBs, three part of the Hertfordshire County SRTS program, and two outside that initiative. In addition to timing and mapping of each route, and observations of implementation-stage meetings, there were four stages of interviews covering the head teacher, the WSB coordinator, and participating parents and children.
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From page 203... ...
ing independent of the WSB (but not necessarily unaccompanied) as their alternate mode.
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From page 204... ...
The experience with the five Hertfordshire case study WSBs tracked in Table 16-53 was actually better than the county-wide experience delineated in Table 16-50. The interviews illustrated that in the early stages of a WSB many leave because of finding it does not meet expectations or fit with the family schedule.
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From page 205... ...
ing to younger children aged 5 to 8 years, after which they are ready for CTs with their typical participant age span of 8 to 11. Indication of availability to join a Nelson CT was given by 95 students in the initial survey of five schools.
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From page 206... ...
One general measure of all types of walking and bicycling promotional effort is the capacity of advocacy organizations as estimated on the basis of organizational revenue or staffing levels per capita.
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From page 207... ...
16-207 Table 16-54 Summary of Research Findings on Mass-Market and Targeted Promotions of Shifting to Non-Motorized Travel Study (Date) Process (Limitations)
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The statistically insignificant results of the multifaceted sustainable transportation campaign in Maidstone, England (1st Table 16-54 entry) , mirror the inconclusive outcomes typically observed in public-transit mass-market promotional efforts.
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Queensland, Australia, RTWD events and the 16 percent reported for the 2001 RTWD event sponsored by the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments in the United States (Rose and Marfurt, 2007)
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From page 210... ...
In Canada's British Columbia province, the provincial capital, Victoria, has had a Ride to Work Week event since 1995, annual since 1998. The present motivational focus on health and personal fitness was adopted after research showed these behavior instigators were much higher in priority for cyclists than were environmental concerns.
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From page 211... ...
Not addressed in Table 16-54 is perhaps the ultimate form of targeted marketing, namely, one-onone marketing to individuals. This form of promotion and information delivery is the subject of the "Individualized Marketing" discussion below.
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United States -- now totaling worldwide in the hundreds. This chapter's final case study, "Variations on Individualized Marketing in the North West United States," adds detail for several of the U.S.
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From page 213... ...
In the United States, demonstration projects in the four locations selected for the 2003–2006 FTA IMDP provide an indication of the variation encountered in distributions of interviewed households among the Groups I, R, and N categories. (These statistics may be compared with the South Perth data in the lower-right section of Table 16-56.)
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From page 214... ...
The four cities involved in the 2003–2006 FTA IMDP demonstrations were Bellingham, population 80,000, located on Puget Sound in Washington State near Canada; Cleveland, Ohio, where the bus and rail system is the nation's thirteenth-largest; Durham, North Carolina, in the low-density Research Triangle area; and Sacramento, California, where the demonstration focused on the Rancho Cordova suburban community with its rapid growth and light rail transit (LRT) access.
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From page 215... ...
Results for the 2008 Whatcom Smart Trips large-scale IndiMark application, covering about 1/3 of Bellingham's households, are appended to Table 16-58 for comparison. The adjusted before-share total for active transportation modes going into the 2008 large-scale application (28 percent)
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From page 216... ...
The annual Portland studies have, for selected years, included reporting of pedestrian and/or bicycle volume changes before-and-after individualized marketing interventions. Since such data are not presented for all years, it is not possible to judge whether the findings are representative or reflective of particularly notable outcomes.
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From page 217... ...
have been analyzed based on survey samples totaling 6,155 households. Households randomly selected in each survey wave were utilized in one-half of the projects, and randomly selected panels were employed in the other half (Australian Government, 2005)
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From page 218... ...
Outcomes from multiple Australian programs have been analyzed in an effort to identify how area types and program size affect individualized marketing success. Two areas deemed to have poor NMT facilities and transit service along with high auto use levels were deliberately afforded individualized marketing programs to see how results would compare with those in communities more walk/bike and transit friendly.
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From page 219... ...
explicitly addressed the net effect of total walking, cycling, transit access, and parked-car access travel time changes (Brög and Barta, 2007)
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From page 220... ...
marketing, found a 6 percent transit mode share. In the control-survey area, transit trips increased by 24 percent in relative terms, presumably because of the MAX yellow line.
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From page 221... ...
Data from the original introduction of individualized marketing in Germany show strong retention of shifts to public transportation for as long as 4 years. Walking and bicycling were not addressed in these studies.
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From page 222... ...
marketing (Brög et al., 2009) that is sufficient to warrant their review here, in context, rather than having only brief mention within the "Analytical Considerations" discussion of the "Overview and Summary." Voluntary travel behavior change works within the confines of incremental shifts of mode in an experimental environment easily clouded by many uncontrolled factors (Brög et al., 2009, Parker et al., 2007)
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From page 223... ...
Considerable effort has been expended -- in a majority of applications -- to minimize opportunity for such artifacts and other biases. The process as applied in the 2008 Whatcom Smart Trips project in Bellingham is summarized in the "Variations on Individualized Marketing .
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From page 224... ...
strategy in the "support action" category. They would today almost certainly be implemented with an individual employer focus, as set forth in Chapter 19, "Employer and Institutional TDM Strategies" (see "Response to Support Actions" under "Response by Type of TDM Strategy")
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From page 225... ...
other instruction, at individual schools, stressing public transportation safety or bicycling safety. The school-based individualized marketing efforts proved heavily dependent on teacher interest and time availability, and survey execution reflected lack of much direct involvement by appropriately specialized practitioners (Department for Transport, 2005, Australian Government, 2005)
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From page 226... ...
perspective is the lack of reporting on bicycling outcomes. Nevertheless, successes and failures in promoting walking have a useful degree of transferability to many aspects of cycling promotion.
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Key Terms
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