Obesity in the Early Childhood Years State of the Science and Implementation of Promising Solutions: Workshop Summary (2016) / Chapter Skim
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2 The State of the Science
2 The State of the Science
Pages 5-18
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From page 5... ...
• The flavors of the foods children experience beginning in utero and continuing during breastfeeding and complementary feeding establish flavor and food preferences that can persist throughout a lifetime. (Mennella)
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Together, these percentages translate into more than 90 million individuals -- 78.6 million adults and 12.7 million youth (see Figure 2-1) , observed Cynthia Ogden, an epidemiologist at the National Center for Health Statistics at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
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-- defined as weight divided by the square of a person's height in metric measures -- is compared with a reference population, which in the United States is generally the sex-specific 2000 CDC growth charts, said Ogden. Children are considered overweight if they have a BMI-for-age between the 85th and the 95th per centiles and obese if they are at or above the 95th percentile (CDC, 2015a)
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. FIGURE 2-2 Prevalence of obesity among low-income, preschool-aged children, Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance System, United States, 2011.
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Childhood obesity trends were essentially flat over the decade before the most recently available data (Ogden et al., 2014) , meaning that the in creases occurred largely in the 1980s, the 1990s, and the first few years of the 2000s, said Ogden.
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data to confirm that." Other data sources also show a drop in obesity among preschoolers, Ogden stated. For example, the Pediatric Nutrition Surveillance System found a slight but statistically significant decline in 18 states from 2008 to 2011 among low-income 2- to 4-year-olds participating in federal nutrition programs (May et al., 2013)
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Finally, the longitudinal Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study found a moderate association of 0.29 for girls and 0.36 for boys between obesity at age 3 and in adulthood (Juhola et al., 2011)
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. From the many topics EARLY ORIGINS OF OBESITY The Role of Epigenetics and Opportunities for Intervention TOXIC STRESS ENVIRONMENT Health & Economic Disparities Cultural & Economic MULTI-LEVEL ENVIRONMENT MATERNAL & PATERNAL COMMUNITY STRESS MATERNAL NUTRITION, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, FAMILY TOXIC STRESS APPETITE & SATIETY Rapid Infant Growth CHILD EPIGENETICS (Human and Microbiotic)
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examined longitudinal cohorts of children and epigenetic signatures of their umbilical cord tissue and then looked at fat distribution in the same children at age 9. Methylation patterns at several genes were associated with increased adiposity in an independent sample of children, although no causal mechanism was identified.
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[and] shed light on factors that could be potentially mitigated." THE FLAVOR WORLD OF CHILDHOOD: BASIC BIOLOGY AND HEALTH IMPLICATIONS Many chronic illnesses that plague society derive in large part from poor food choices that are dictated by people's taste preferences, stated Julie Mennella, a member at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia.
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[It is] rich in added sugars or salt." While the biological drive to avoid bitter and prefer salty and sweet foods may have served children well in a feast-or-famine setting, this biology explains why children are vulnerable to the current food environment abundant in highly processed and palatable foods and rich in added sugars, non-nutritive sweeteners, and salt.
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. By age 4, 92 percent of children consume less than the minimum recommended amount of vegetables, while 99 percent of children exceed the recommended intake of added sugars (Krebs-Smith et al., 2010)
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"It may be another opportune time for indi viduals who may be motivated to change to establish healthy eating habits that will be passed on to their children." In conclusion, Mennella emphasized that basic research in both humans and animal models is critical to continued advances and applications in this area. Food is much more than taste or a source of calories, she said.
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She also observed that discussion of healthy eating inevitably involves public policies, which again highlights the importance of both the evidence and family dynamics. "If we can consider how policies address families together as a unit, we could have the opportunity to shift normative behaviors," she suggested.
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