Forest Health and Biotechnology Possibilities and Considerations (2019) / Chapter Skim
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2 Forest Health
2 Forest Health
Pages 19-52
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These case study species are referenced throughout this report. This chapter concludes by describing the effects these threats have on forest health and ecosystem services.
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Here, both perspectives on valuation are introduced. Maintaining forest health is essential for the conservation and sustainable management of the many ecosystem services provided to humans by forests.
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In the context of forests, for instance, people might intrinsically value forest ecosystems or wild animals or the perceived state of wildness itself. Objective intrinsic value describes value that is believed to exist on the basis of certain properties or features, independent of anyone's evaluative attitudes (Sandler, 2012, 2018)
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The remainder of this chapter reviews the scope of the threat from insect pests and pathogens facing North American forests and the implications of that threat for the forest ecosystem and the ecosystem services it provides. THREATS TO FOREST HEALTH FROM INSECT PESTS AND PATHOGENS Despite being part of the forest natural disturbance regime, outbreaks of insects and pathogens have dramatically increased in number and impact since the mid-19th century (Aukema et al., 2010; Boyd et al., 2013)
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. As the frequency of insect and pathogen outbreaks increases, forest resilience and the ecosystem services associated with forests are threatened (Millar and Stephenson, 2015; Seidl et al., 2016)
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. Some of these introductions have had devastating consequences in North American forests; impacts have ranged from temporary declines in population productivity to the functional extirpation of an entire species (see case study of the American chestnut, below)
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high-impact insects and pathogens (those that cause some combination of tree mortality, canopy thinning, growth loss, defoliation, and decreased reproduction or regeneration)
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Live plants Five‐needle High mortality of Continent‐ blister rust Fisch pines (section susceptible trees wide; Quinquefolia in in several western greatest genus Pinus) pine species impacts in West Phytophthora Phytophthora cinnamomi Unknown Many hosts High mortality of Continent‐ dieback Rands including susceptible trees wide American chestnut, white oak, shortleaf pine, and Fraser fir, fruit trees Port‐Orford‐ Phytophthora lateralis Probably Port‐Orford-cedar High mortality of Klamath cedar Tucker and Milbrath live plants trees, especially Mountains, root disease in riparian parts of California its range and Oregon Beech bark Cryptococcus fagisuga Live plants American beech Severely reduces Deciduous disease Lindinger + mature beech; often forests of (scale insect + Nectria coccinea var.
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Niar, Kostichka and greater than 80% Northeast Kuntz mortality of and Midwest butternut in the South Balsam woolly Adelges piceae Ratzeburg Live plants Most true fir Widespread impacts Northeast; adelgid species (Abies) in on firs; severe southern North America mortality of Fraser Appalachians; fir on southern Northwest Appalachian mountaintops and Christmas tree farms Established, Potential for Significant Effects in the Future Asian Anoplophora glabripennis Wood Woody vegetation Severe impacts Continent‐ longhorned Motschulsky packaging in 15 families, possible in both wide beetle especially maples, urban and forest deciduous elms, and willows landscapes; forests eradication being attempted Winter moth Operophtera brumata L
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in the continental United States and Alaska. NOTE: High-impact species are those that cause some combination of tree mortality, canopy thinning, growth loss, defoliation, and decreased reproduction or regeneration.
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. Insect Pests and Pathogens Under Climate Change Climate change is opening new opportunities for colonization by both native and introduced insect species (Harvell et al., 2002; Logan et al., 2003)
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This section reviews the effects on some specific tree species and genera; the feasibility of using biotechnology to address threats to these species is discussed in subsequent chapters. This section also examines more broadly the effects of insect pests and pathogens on forest health and ecosystem services.
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. In two cases, the committee chose specific host trees that face more than one pest p ressure (American chestnut and whitebark pine)
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ash borer (Agrilus Sphaerulina (Cryphonectria Insect pest: planipennis) musiva (native to parasitica)
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American chestnut and relatives Allegheny chinquapin and Ozark chinquapin, (b) whitebark pine, (c)
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In a forest setting, the other Castanea species are not competitive; they do not grow tall enough or fast enough to compete for light against the native American chestnut or other native tree species (Wu and Raven, 1999; Fei et al., 2012)
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FOREST HEALTH 35 FIGURE 2-7 Whitebark pine as predominant component of high-elevation forest in southern Oregon, Umpqua National Forest (top) and Crater Lake National Park (middle and bottom)
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. At the upper limits of its elevational range, whitebark pine establishes in areas too harsh to support other tree species (Weaver and Dale, 1974; Tomback and Linhart, 1990)
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NOTES: Planting and establishment of green ash outside the native range results in emerald ash borer infestation beyond the native range of F pennsylvanica.
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b. FIGURE 2-9 Ash tree mortality from emerald ash borer (EAB)
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This case study presents an example of an incipient invasion of a pathogen native to forest ecosystems in eastern North America that poses a threat to an ecologically important native tree group in western North America as well as to a sector of the forest products industry. There are eight native species of Populus in North America and multiple hybrids (Cooke and Rood, 2007)
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musiva in natural populations of black cottonwood in Pacific Northwest forests, where the disease is not native and was unknown until 2006 (Callan et al., 2007; Herath et al., 2016)
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. In the case of extended or severe tree mortality, as in the American chestnut, substantial losses of other forest species and some ecosystem services can be expected.
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The loss of whitebark pine may reduce the complexity and function of high-elevation ecosystems in the west and contribute to the decline of grizzlies and other wildlife as well as ecosystem services related to water and sediment regulation. The loss of ash trees affects not only natural communities; loss of city trees has had a large effect on property values (Aukema et al., 2011)
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American chestnut, whitebark pine, ash, and poplar are just four examples of North American tree species that have been or are in danger of being extirpated. They are subject to one or more pest threats, and whitebark pine, in particular, is losing habitat to climate change.
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2005. Emerald ash borer in North America: A research and regulatory challenge.
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2013. On the relation between ecosystem services, intrinsic value, existence value and economic valuation.
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2010b. North American arthropods at risk due to widespread Fraxinus mortality caused by the alien emerald ash borer.
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2016. Sprouting and seed production may promote persistence of green ash in the presence of the emerald ash borer.
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2007. The influence of white pine blister rust on seed dispersal in whitebark pine.
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2016. Searching for resilience: Addressing the impacts of changing disturbance regimes on forest ecosystem services.
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2016. Community structure, biodiversity, and ecosystem services in treeline whitebark pine communities: Potential impacts from a non-native pathogen.
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2002. Whitebark pine and white pine blister rust in British Columbia, Canada.
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