A National Strategy to Reduce Food Waste at the Consumer Level (2020) / Chapter Skim
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Appendix D: Interventions to Reduce Food Waste at the Consumer Level: Examples from the Literature
Appendix D: Interventions to Reduce Food Waste at the Consumer Level: Examples from the Literature
Pages 195-258
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From page 195... ...
Table D-1 provides a comprehensive overview of the studies meeting our inclusion criteria, though not all of them are covered in the boxes; the table also includes a handful of modeling studies. Although they are based on assumptions and less on empirical data, modeling studies are useful in that they explore not only the effect of interventions on wasted food, but 195
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, 3 which used implicit appeals (Box D-2) , and 9 that used both and other intervention types (Box D-3)
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, a tier 1 study in which posters at dining hall entrances and in serving areas urged students to reduce plate waste in the one of the university's all-you-care-to-eat buffets. Although this study involves an intervention that includes information about the social implications of wasted food that might be expected to engender feelings of guilt or shame and therefore a reduction in food waste, no effect size was reported.
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. Although after receiving information about the social implications of wasted food the amount of waste declined significantly, the waste reduction was significantly less (only 28 percent)
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These interventions have a mixed record in delivering significant reductions in food waste, which makes it difficult to provide a summary evaluation. For example, engagement interventions delivered in the home included diverse mechanisms: systematic engaging individuals to reconsider household food routines (Devaney and Davies 2017, tier 2, Ireland)
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The interventions studied were diverse, focusing on social desirability, public commitment, social media communications, communication of social norms, food sharing, and such situations as workshops in which a peer group might influence behavior. The authors of only three of these studies provide quantitative results that make it possible to distinguish the effects of the social comparison intervention from those of other interventions in the study.
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Specifically, the multifaceted intervention included sixth-grade curriculum that leveraged student interactions through group projects and voting on student developed project posters designed to nurture shared values, including the reduc tion of wasted food. The intervention, which also included personalized and group feedback (students estimating their own waste during school lunches and their classrooms' aggregate waste)
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However, attrition was high; only 43 of 108 experimental participants took the follow-up test Several other tier 2 studies explored technology-enabled tools that linked small groups of people in order to reduce wasted food. Comber and Thieme (2013, United Kingdom)
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FINANCIAL INCENTIVES Interventions providing financial incentives alter the monetary consequences of behaviors that can influence the amount of food consumers waste. One tier 1 study in South Korea found that financial penalties that increase with amount of wasted food generated at the household level are more effective at reducing the amount of wasted food than financial penalties tied to community level waste amounts (Lee and Jung, 2017)
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. The study found that package size affected the anticipated food waste for perishable products among consumers, which was found to mediate purchasing intentions.
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Two studies in food service settings showed mixed results when comparing the efficacy of imposing fines for excessive plate waste with that of emphasizing environmental benefits to reduce plate waste (Chen and Jai, 2018, tier 2, United States; Kuo and Shih, 2016, tier 2, Taiwan)
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, plate waste was reduced by 41 per cent per plate on average during the intervention, while food intake was reduced, and establishments saved money. Two other studies collaborated with university dining facilities to change portion sizes of French fries.
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One non-peer-reviewed study conducted by a large food service provider (ARAMARK, 2008, United States) measured plate waste from more than 186,000 meals at 25 academic institutions during periods before and after trays were removed: the study found a 25 percent to 30 percent reduction in per-person waste on trayless days.
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Their purpose was commonly to change quality (e.g., nutrition or taste) rather than reduce waste; however, because they used plate waste as an indicator of amount consumed, they can shed light on how such "food quality" interventions might alter discarding.
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From page 209... ...
involved nudges to increase appeal less directly, including by altering the quality of the material of the plate used; providing priming messages to subtly enhance the self-esteem of customers considering the purchase of suboptimal foods; making purchasing require more effort to enhance the consumer's psychological ownership of food; and providing cafeteria meals after recess, when student appetite would be greater. Box D-10 provides examples of four of these studies, all of which found significant effects.
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Focusing on grades 3-5 in two schools with a high percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch, this study found 32 percent less wasted food in the school with lunch served after recess, in addition to improved consumption of multiple nutrients. As the study did not assess an intervention, it is not possible to know whether the difference reflects the order of meal and recess or other differences between the schools in the study.
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Although considerable technological design effort exists in that space, such as packaging, including modeling studies assessing potential impacts, they are seldom tested in interventions that BOX D-11 Nudges that Change Food Date Labels Food expiration date labels (such as "best before") are frequently miscon strued as providing information about food safety, although this is true only for a small number of foods (labeled with "use by" under the voluntary food industry standard)
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although none of the studies reviewed examined such interventions. Overall, the empirical support of nudge interventions focused on shifting food quantity and appeal is the stronger than that for any of the other intervention types with statistically significant effect sizes being documented in multiple studies of this intervention type.
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From page 213... ...
In summary, while some studies suggest significant effects may be achieved with simple informational interventions alone, other studies suggest null effects, and long-term impacts must be assessed. Additionally, as the public grows more knowledgeable about wasted food, the impact of informational approaches may be reduced.
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that can be adapted by influencers, industry, and organizations related to promoting the value of food, the cost of food waste, and the positive behaviors to reduce wasted food. The campaign has engaged actors and has published les sons learned related to how to develop, conduct outreach activities, monitor, and research a successful campaign to reduce wasted food.
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MODELING STUDIES While high-quality empirical evaluations are critical for providing robust recommendations concerning the effectiveness of interventions to reduce wasted food at the consumer level, studies that develop, calibrate, and simulate models of consumer behavior (modeling studies) can also provide important insights concerning the potential effectiveness of individual interventions or suites of interventions.
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From page 216... ...
Their simulations, which were calibrated for a variety of business and delivery requirement parameters, suggest that the subscription model will lead to less wasted food, as patrons will order more frequently and avoid stockpiling that often leads to waste, and that the accompanying environmental benefits from reduced food waste are greater than the additional environmental burdens triggered from additional vehicle trips. Duret et al.
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To be tractable, the model requires several strong assumptions (e.g., there is a single product with a one-day shelf life) , but such assumptions permit an analyst to track how product size alters wasted food that occurs both in homes and at retailers, that is, how a particular package size could increase waste at home but decrease waste at the store (or vice versa)
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undertaken by dining hall
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reductions in plate waste • information sheet about Drivers food waste and its impacts C-Waste vs. other goals • information that the food E-Psychological distance waste from the meal would be composted rather than discarded Williamson et More food served on disposable Replacing paper with plastic Intervention Types Study at universities (3A al., 2016 (i.e., paper)
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I- Psychosocial factors perceived social corporate EPA) responsibility moderated the relationship between attitudes toward food waste messaging and the intention to reduce food waste Freedman and Portion size was positively Intervention decreased the Intervention Types Criteria not met: no control Brochado, 2010 correlated with consumption portion size of French fries • Nudges group (United States)
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than before the campaign, but ask for a smaller portion if Drivers the approximated impact on consumers expect not to finish A-Knowledge food waste was not significant the meal portion; designed to avoid consumers' insufficient planning problem Kuo and Shih, Overall average plate waste 3-week longitudinal design: Intervention Types Criteria not met: no 2016 was slightly reduced with the • Baseline: first week, no • Appeals control group; statistical (Taiwan) information intervention and intervention • Financial incentives significance not assessed reduced dramatically with the • Intervention 1 (week Drivers coercion intervention 2)
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: A-Knowledge significance not assessed • a social media tool on I-Psychosocial factors Twitter that interrupted the linear process of consumers' consuming and throwing away food by allowing participants to send messages to inform others of food that would have otherwise been wasted within the study setting
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rose • stickers with food ordering • Appeals group; other limitations: (Thailand) significantly; a bigger increase tips by food vendors • Social comparisons cannot unpack individual was seen among female students • information cards on • Information effects of each intervention than among male students dining tables about Drivers element resource use and D-Lack of awareness/ environmental impacts in monitoring food production E-Psychological distance • other materials from FAO "save food" campaign, such as posters and banners with messages and images eliciting a proenvironmental norm • encouragement to increase the visibility of the actions via social media to students that took a course with practical tasks to prevent food waste 223 continued
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the waste consumption index • display of informative • Appeals group; other limitations: and a significant reduction in posters in canteen • Information cannot unpack individual unserved food in the kitchen reminding patrons to Drivers effects of each intervention choose smaller portions if D-Lack of awareness/ element desired and not to accept monitoring food they knew they would F-Dietary differences not eat • students approaching their colleagues to inform them about social impact of food waste and how they could make a difference • parallel actions encouraging separation of organic and inorganic waste in the kitchen Sarjahani et al., Removing trays in an all-you- Removal of trays from the Intervention Types Criteria not met: no control 2009 can-eat cafeteria setting had a cafeteria (3 days) • Nudges group; other limitations: (United States)
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significant effect on solid food Drivers waste; it had a nonsignificant A-Knowledge effect on liquid waste Vermote et al., Smaller portion sizes resulted in Longitudinal design (2 weeks) : Intervention Types Criteria not met: no control 2018 a decrease in the total intake of Baseline: usual porcelain bowl • Nudges group (Belgium)
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elementary school showed mixed for students and teachers: • Engagement each intervention element results: significant effects were A For children: • Feedback observed in the short term for • noted the social, • Information students and in the medium term economic, and nutritional Drivers for teachers consequences of food waste D-Lack of awareness/ • identified most wasted monitoring items E-Psychological distance • helped plan menu to reduce food waste • created posters on food waste • gold stickers for students who did not wasted food on ‘No Plate Waste Day'
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B For teachers: • teacher discussion session on causes of food waste • showed food waste statistics for the school and highlighted it was higher than average • told of their role in influencing children's food waste behavior • encouraged to model behavior at lunch • given flyer about importance of food waste and strategies to reduce it 227 continued
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; treated point in time standards, including units D-Lack of awareness/ classrooms required teacher on food waste and school monitoring to be willing to participate; cafeteria waste E-Psychosocial distance cannot unpack individual • tasking students with effects of each intervention estimating their personal element lunch waste for 1 week and . then aggregate and post class-wide results • created a poster about lessons from unit, selected best posters to hang in cafeteria during last month of intervention Williamson et More food served on disposable Replacing paper with plastic Intervention Types Study 3C treatment al., 2016 (i.e., paper)
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by teachers, changes in food Group books concerning Drivers differences; consumption behaviors measured origins and benefits of certain E-Psychological distance intervention was not geared by food waste were not observed, food groups (grains, fruits, and toward reducing food waste but teachers indicated changes in vegetables) the preschoolers' attitudes toward trying new foods Bergman et al., Plate waste was compared Intervention: change in Intervention Types Criteria not met: no 2004 between two elementary schools: practice (10 days)
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consumption for the 50:50 blend whole wheat flour for refined- • Nudges group; other limitations: or the refined wheat pizza crusts wheat flour in pizza crust Drivers study goal was not reducing F-Dietary differences food waste Setting: Restaurant Tier 1b Kallbekken and Each intervention resulted in Two different interventions (6 Intervention Types Other limitations: long-term Saelen, 2013 a significant reduction in food weeks) • Appeals effects not assessed (Norway)
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Tier 2b Berkowitz et al., Food waste was significantly Intervention (7 weeks) : reduce Intervention Types Criteria not met: no control 2016 reduced in intervention compared and full size serving of food • Nudges group (United States)
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than controls; placards: "Food waste • Social comparisons other limitations: food was diners who were prompted with happens in the restaurant • Information limited to pizza an informative and a normative too. A third of all foods Drivers message did not ask for leftover are thrown away.
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plates served more, ate more, • the effect of education (a Drivers and wasted more food than those 60-minute, interactive, A-Knowledge with smaller plates; educational multimedia warning on F-Dietary differences intervention had no impact on the dangers of using large these results plates in reducing the effect of plate size) Kuperberg et al., With room service, satisfaction Room service delivery Intervention Types Criteria not met: no control 2008 increased, food costs decreased system in a pediatric hospital • Nudges group (Canada)
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A-Knowledge H-Marketing practices I-Psychosocial factors Lorenz-Walther Portion size reductions for target Two interventions (2 weeks) : Intervention Types Criteria not met; no et al., 2019 dishes were found to relate • information on posters • Appeals control; other limitations: (Germany)
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" vs. control "Pick more often than unattractive Ugly Produce!
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TABLE D-1 Continued 236 Intervention Types and Study Findings Intervention Driversa Limitations Young et al., Both the intervention and the Two interventions with Intervention Types Criteria not met: wasted 2017 control groups self-reported messages to encourage • Appeals food not measured; (United reductions in food waste; the use reductions in food waste • Engagement other limitations: control Kingdom) of social media did not change from the standard "Love • Social comparisons group not randomly behavior as self-reported by Food Hate Waste" campaign; • Information assigned consumers interventions differed in the Drivers communication channel, not A- Knowledge the message: • use of retailer's Facebook pages to encourage its customers to interact, or • multifaceted intervention via two communication channels, the retailer's print and digital magazine and e-newsletter
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reductions in food waste • Social comparisons not randomly assigned from the standard "Love • Information Food Hate Waste" campaign; Drivers interventions differed in the A- Knowledge communication channel, not the message: • via an article in retailer's print and digital magazine • via a larger article in retailer's print and digital magazine • via an e-newsletter • via retailer's Facebook pages to encourage its customers to interact with each other • on-pack stickers designed to invoke norms with tips about how to make the most from selected perishable products • in-store events, challenging customers to reduce waste 237 continued
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and with two products (apples and carrots) Aschemann- Message on the 2 x 4 intervention design Intervention Types Criteria not met: food Witzel, 2018 sticker appealing to either a in virtual retail store: two • Appeals waste not measured; other (Denmark)
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. differences in choice likelihood Kawata and Willingness to pay for Surveys on willingness to pay Intervention Types Criteria not met: food Kubota, 2018 reprocessed domestic and foreign for three choices: (1)
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preferences for food past its best- of varying perishability level • Financial incentives before date; when information at various dates before or • Information about the environmental after their best-before dates. implications of food waste Interventions: Drivers was provided, participants' • education about the B-Assessing risk willingness-to-pay for expired meaning of labels I-Psychosocial factors food increased, particularly for • same education plus K-Policy expired frozen or recently expired information about the semi-perishable products environmental implications of food waste
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Le Borgne et al., Consumers' perceived probability Hypothetical product purchase Intervention Types Criteria not met: food 2018 of waste had a significant setting to assess the impact of • Financial incentives waste not measured; other (France) negative effect on consumers' multiproduct sales tactics on Drivers limitations: statistical attitude toward promotions and intended food waste G-Everyday complexity testing for intention consumers' intention to choose H-Marketing practices to discard not clearly perishable food products (cheese communicated; effects and bread)
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focus on their anticipated food • the mediating role of waste and thereby reduce their anticipated food waste on preference for bonus packs; consumers' purchasing Study 3 found that anticipated intentions as a function food waste decreased when small of package size and packages were sold partitioned, product perishability (2 x while it increases when large 2 study: package size and packages were sold partitioned perishability)
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a 16-cup package) • whether large packs sold as individual units has an effect on anticipated food waste, 2 x 2 design: small vs.
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, reduction and relied on • online produce purchase university students Romani et al., Information intervention led to a Longitudinal study with Intervention Types Reliance on household food 2018 significant effect size in reducing information intervention to • Engagement waste diaries, which are (Italy) food waste illustrate how to organize • Information known for underreporting, a weekly menu quickly and Drivers and sample attrition of simply and a printable Excel A-Knowledge about 10 percent between file designed to support meal baseline and post-treatment organization and preparation measurement
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five emails sent over the course of 2 weeks to reinforce the messages Soma et al., The passive group and the Three different interventions: Intervention Types 2020 gamification group had higher • A passive approach (a • Appeals (Canada) self-reported awareness booklet with information • Engagement of food wasting and lower food on why food waste is a • Information wastage than the control group; problem, tips to reduce Drivers waste audits found marginally food waste at home, and A-Knowledge significant differences between a prompt in the form of a the gamification group and the fridge magnet with storage control group and no difference tips)
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included providing a • Information food not measured; no (Australia) wasters and nonwasters; shopping bag, chopping board, Drivers control group; other following the intervention, a 16 new leftover reuse recipe A-Knowledge limitations: only fruit significant percentage of people cards, invitation flyer and and vegetable waste was transitioned away from wasters a shopping list and in-store considered; unable to to nonwasters cooking demonstrations unpack individual effects of each intervention element
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Dyen and Sirieix, Cooking classes were efficient to Ongoing cooking classes on Intervention Types Criteria not met: no 2016 promote less food waste how to cook with products • Social comparisons control group; statistical (France) from the food bank in social • Information significance not assessed; center for people with social Drivers other limitations: N = 3 instability A-Knowledge 247 continued
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reduction was not reported for and skills and technical Drivers group not randomly control group expertise to reducing food A-Knowledge assigned waste in six weekly sessions; I-Psychosocial factors the control group was 33 families not attending the workshop
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explored nor claimed in this app where users report Drivers (self-report only) ; study available and wasted A-Knowledge inadequate statistical ingredients; based on these, D-Lack of awareness/ reporting recipes are created and monitoring users are sent recipes with I-Psychosocial factors smart bins that collects J-Built environment wasted ingredients • social recipes app plus a bin for monitoring food waste and eco-feedback application Morone et al., The adoption of food sharing Intervention: students were Intervention Types Evident problems included 2018 practices by households did not instructed to purchase, cook, • Engagement participants who dropped (Italy)
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the self-reported performance of weeks) : • Social comparisons food not measured recorded food waste-preventing • providing information • Information (self-report only)
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other goals waste prevention behaviors significant (food, energy, and (information intervention) D-Lack of awareness/ (planning out meals and water waste prevention)
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the date label which may be the three products, two sizes, and Drivers least ambiguous and suggestive three expiration dates B-Assessing risk of food safety; the willingness to I-Psychosocial factors waste was the lowest for the "Sell K-Policy by: treatment, which may be the most ambiguous date label about safety or quality for consumers
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other goals; D-lack of awareness/monitoring; E-psychological distance; F dietary differences; G-everyday complexity; H-marketing practices; I-psychosocial factors; J-built environment; and K-policy. bTier 1 studies met four criteria: an intervention was implemented; wasted food was measured; causal effect can be attributed; and statistical analysis was adequate.
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2019. Toward Cleaner Plates: A study of plate waste in food service.
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2010. Reducing portion size reduces food intake and plate waste.
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2016. Strategies to reduce plate waste in primary schools -- experimental evaluation.
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2018. The effect of a portion size intervention on French fries consumption, plate waste, satiety and compensatory caloric intake: An on-campus restaurant experiment.
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2013. Portion size me: Plate-size induced consumption norms and win-win solutions for reducing food intake and waste.
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