Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies (2022) / Chapter Skim
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20 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Figure 14. Main electric aircraft components.
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21 C H A P T E R 3 3.1 Electric Aviation Stakeholders Stakeholders Inventory Aircraft electrification involves a wide range of stakeholders with different purposes and objectives. The potential stakeholders that will be involved or affected by the development of electric aircraft can be internal or external and may vary significantly from one airport to another, depending on factors such as the size of the airport.
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22 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Electric Power Industry & Regulators The electric power community includes the producers, providers, and suppliers of electricity, as well as the federal and state regulators and local energy commissions.. Power generation companies, electricity suppliers, electricity providers, utility commissions, U.S.
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The Stakeholder Ecosystem 23 in fixed tanks or individual pods for aviation usage. Because the aviation market will be a small activity for industrial gas companies, the segment from the production plant to the final aviation user (aircraft)
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24 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies container swapping) as a major repair or alteration of the aircraft, this will not be considered a typical ground handling operation that can be performed by trained ground agents.
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The Stakeholder Ecosystem 25 operations. Additionally, at many airports, FBOs are the primary fueling service provider, collecting revenue from airlines and private operators and passing a portion through to the host airport.
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26 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Electricity Demand Currently, terminal buildings consume 60 percent of the electricity at a typical airport, and airfields consume the remaining 40 percent. This balance could be shifted with the emergence of electric aircraft.
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27 C H A P T E R 4 4.1 Electric Propulsion System Application The electric and hybrid-electric approaches of electric propulsion allow manufacturers to take on different operational use cases. The electric aircraft and electric propulsion technologies under development broadly apply to five primary aviation use cases: regional aviation, commuter aircraft, light air cargo operations, flight training, and personal use general aviation.
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28 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Flight Training Pilot training aircraft typically share three primary characteristics: cheap to acquire and operate, reliable, and easy to fly. These aircraft typically use piston engines, producing between 100 and 200 kW, and accommodate 1 to 3 passengers for roughly a couple of hours of flight time.
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Market Assessment 29 hybrid-electric propulsion systems in development and expected to enter the commercial market by 2029. Additionally, advances in battery charging technology, led by a significant build-out in the automotive industry, will lead to cost reductions on the order of $100 per kW.
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30 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies design alterations, or safety events involving electric aircraft. And, as such, the first electric aircraft certification is not completed before 2025, delaying widespread certifications until 2027.
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Market Assessment 31 Number of Chargers The number of chargers necessary to support electric aircraft operations is expressed by an estimated number of chargers required per aircraft. This number is based on assumptions about the expected pace of operations, target charging times, and the density of operations.
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32 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies The flight training use case represents $2.5 million on the baseline and $5.6 million on the upside. While requiring more chargers per aircraft than the general aviation use case, flight training operations charges have lower power requirements and therefore lower cost.
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Market Assessment 33 development and introduction of electric aircraft for commercial aviation requires a business case to support and drive operator investment. The rate of adoption for all five electric aircraft use cases hinges on reductions in the total cost of ownership over aircraft lifecycle and changes in federal incentives and public support for lower carbon emissions.
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34 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies aviation emissions are projected to grow by 3 to 4 percent per year -- at a rate faster than population growth -- and as governments and technology drive down emissions from other sources, aviation could increase its share of global emissions by 300 to 700 percent by 2050. As a result, several influential international institutions and initiatives such as the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
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Market Assessment 35 range restrictions greatly limit aircraft utility and flexibility and would likely depress demand. Battery energy density will likely also be a factor in the design of hybrid-electric propulsion systems for the turboprop airliner use case.
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36 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies energy densities improve, aircraft range and payload economics will be revised. It is widely accepted in the industry that 500 Wh/kg is the minimum energy density required to achieve commercially acceptable load and range characteristics.
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Market Assessment 37 Major Barrier: Deployment and Cost of Developing Electric and Hydrogen Infrastructure Supporting infrastructure is key to enabling electric aircraft operations in today's airport environment. Challenges to implementation of electric aircraft primarily center on meeting aircraft charging needs with appropriately powered battery charging systems and the supporting power infrastructure, as well as options for hydrogen supply for aircraft equipped with fuel cells.
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38 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies will need facilities and equipment for transportation, storage, and charging of swapped battery packs. However, unlike commuters, these flights will operate out of larger and more highly trafficked regional and hub airports.
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39 C H A P T E R 5 5.1 Economic Aspects and Policy Considerations The primary financial aspects associated with integrating electric aviation will be the cost of meeting new facility requirements imposed by electric aviation, the applicability of and impacts on federal funding sources, and the potential impacts on regional economies that could be brought about by electric aviation. Short-term impacts would stem primarily from readying airports to support electric aircraft operations and evaluating potential avenues for federal funding or state green grants during this time period.
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40 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies A final potential cost to airports would be the installation of an on-site power generation such as a microgrid. Although not all airports would choose to take this path, many have decided that the added costs would be worth the increased operational resilience and reduced reliance on power grids.
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Economic Impact 41 e FAA's VALE Program was established to encourage airport sponsors to implement clean technology projects that improve air quality. While it is targeted primarily at commercial airports in areas that have not maintained National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
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42 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies tax revenue in 2018. Reductions in fuel tax, while not significant at the beginning, could affect funding availability for some projects or lead to increases in passenger fees to compensate, which could adversely affect aviation ridership.
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Economic Impact 43 At many airports, FBOs rely heavily on the revenue stream of providing fuel for business, commercial, and general aviation. Due to the long-term nature of these impacts, airports and service providers should develop approaches to offsetting lost airport revenue and maintaining profitable relationships.
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44 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Figure 17. For regional airports, electric aircraft could increase net revenue through opening new routes.
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Economic Impact 45 downstream effects on the economy as money related to aviation cycles through the economy due to growth created by electric aircraft. According to the study, electric aircraft have the potential to significantly increase flight activity and encourage growth on and off airports that will support jobs and create business revenues as well for the state of Washington in the following ways: • Reduction in time and costs for people and goods to travel, particularly over short and congested routes, would aid in the creation of more business activities and jobs.
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46 C H A P T E R 6 6.1 Federal Airport Policies Federal Aviation Administration The FAA is the federal agency responsible for civil aviation regulations and controls in the United States. The agency is under the authority of the U.S.
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 47 qualities affecting airworthiness or that is not done according to accepted practices or cannot be done by elementary operations. Depending on the type of aircraft, the airworthiness authorities, including the FAA, have established different regulations.
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FAA EASA ICAO 14 CFR Part 23 – Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Airplanes CS-23 – Normal, Utility, Aerobatic, and Commuter Aeroplanes Annex 8 Part V – Small Aeroplanes: Aeroplanes over 750 kg but not exceeding 5,700 kg for which application for certification was submitted on or after December 13, 2007 14 CFR Part 25 – Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes CS-25 – Large Aeroplanes Annex 8 Part III – Large Aeroplanes 14 CFR Part 27 – Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft CS-27 – Small Rotorcraft - 14 CFR Part 29 – Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft CS-29 – Large Rotorcraft Annex 8 Part IV – Helicopters 14 CFR Part 31 – Airworthiness Standards: Manned Free Balloons CS-31GB/CS-31HB – Gas Balloons/Hot Air Balloons - 14 CFR Part 33 – Airworthiness Standards: Engines CS-E – Engines and SC E19 on Electric/Hybrid Propulsion System Annex 8 Part VI – Engines 14 CFR Part 35 – Airworthiness Standards: Propellers CS-P – Propellers Annex 8 Part VII – Propellers Table 8. Policies on airworthiness.
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 49 AC Title Electric Aircraft Considerations AC 36-1H – Noise Levels for U.S. Certificated and Foreign Aircraft Noise level data for certificated aircraft categorizes aircraft into various "stages." Noise certification ensures that the latest available noise reduction technology, deemed safe and airworthy, is included in aircraft design to reduce noise impacts on communities.
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50 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies airport sponsors meet their state-related air quality responsibilities under the Clean Air Act (CAA)
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 51 infrastructure, air traffic concepts, and other federal investment or actions necessary to support the evolution of early AAM to higher levels of activity and societal benefit, and (2) a comprehensive plan detailing the roles and responsibilities of each federal department and agency necessary to facilitate implementing these recommendations.
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52 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance to provide for more efficient design of airspace and procedures which collectively result in improved safety, capacity, predictability, and operational efficiency.
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 53 representatives of fuel-powered aircraft. The AEDT is a tool developed by the FAA used to model aircraft noise, emissions, and fuel burn and is the current standard model for all civil aviation noise and air quality analyses in the United States.
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54 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies for the amount of electricity that is used. Scope 2 emissions factors vary based on geography and the electric generation (i.e., utility)
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 55 Infrastructure projects required to support the operation of electric aircraft, such as upgrading electrical capacity or adding charging capabilities that require FAA approval of an updated ALP, or use of federal funds, for example, would require a NEPA review. The FAA NEPA orders and accompanying desk references are periodically updated and may include guidance specific to electric aircraft in the future.
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56 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Air Quality At the federal level, the CAA (42 U.S.C.
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 57 Consider a hypothetical example in which an airport proposes to provide electric chargers for charging e-aircraft, which in and of itself would not produce any emissions. Both construction and operational emissions, including reductions from the aircraft (i.e., net benefit)
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58 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies 6.3 Statewide Policies and Plans State Departments of Transportation Role of State Departments of Transportation State DOTs are the core of projects that span across the various travel modes for the respective states. These projects include the planning, design, operations, and maintenance aspects of various transportation modes including highways, rail, and aviation.
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 59 in 2018. These revenues are used for capital and operating costs of the airport or other facilities owned by the airport and are involved significantly in the transportation of passengers to the airport property.
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60 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies • In some states, the landlord or facility operator requires approval from the public utility commission for submetering to be provided. • Other states, rather than submetering, authorize the use of individual metering where each tenant is individually metered directly by the utility company without the landlord or facility operator being a third party.
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 61 aviation division to create an Electric Aircraft Working Group to study electric aircraft service statewide. The research study, which was carried out over the span of months, looked specifically into five different types of aircraft and their purpose of flight.
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62 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies – One very important but unknown factor for the implementation of electric aircraft into airports is the cost to provide infrastructure and facilities to accommodate electric aircraft at airports. The current state and federal grants can assist in part of the developmental cost, but other areas should be identified and looked into at the local level to support the charging infrastructure and electricity supply needs.
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 63 The Norwegian Civil Aviation Authority and Avinor, the main airport operator of the country, are working to develop initiatives and roadmaps toward zero-emission and fossilfree aviation by 2050. Fossil-free energy vectors include sustainable aviation fuel, electricity, and hydrogen.
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64 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies In summer 2020, a workgroup with industrial Norwegian stakeholders presented a roadmap to the Norwegian Transportation Ministry to achieve the defined goals. Avinor published a report in October 2020, "Bærekraftig og samfunnsnyttig luftfart" (or Sustainable and Socially Beneficial Aviation)
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Perspectives on Federal and State Policies 65 missions, the UK government has pushed forward to electrify domestic flights. In this context, the UKRI started to fund several projects: • In Scotland, Highlands and Islands Airports Limited (HIAL)
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66 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies of Electric Aircraft Technology for Harmonized Ecological Revolution, to accelerate electric aircraft development in Japan. This project focused on technologies for electric engines, combined with fuel cells, and hybrid propulsion systems.
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67 C H A P T E R 7 7.1 Perspective on the Aviation Demand Implementation Timeline Short-Term Perspectives (2025 Horizon) In the market assessment, the model forecasts indicate only a modest fleet size, accounting for less than 2 percent of the total fleet mix.
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68 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies aviation and generate a new type of regional air mobility that connects smaller communities and larger metropolitan areas on short-haul flights. A favorable framework at the state level that addresses the challenges described later in the analysis can enable and promote the emergence of regional leaders in electric aircraft operations.
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 69 • Aircraft utilization: Number of flight hours flown by a single aircraft during a given time period (day, month, or year)
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70 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies of battery chargers used, and the market penetration of electric aircraft. For this use case, the assumptions are documented below: • The limited range and endurance of electric flight training aircraft and the typical length of flight training missions imply that batteries are depleted upon landing (i.e., down to a 20 percent state of charge)
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 71 Estimations indicate monthly energy needs between 8 megawatt-hours (MWh)
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72 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies used for personal use. Dekalb-Peachtree Airport (PDK)
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 73 Estimations based on these assumptions indicate monthly energy needs between 50 MWh and 250 MWh at PDK, between 100 MWh and 600 MWh at TMB, between 35 MWh and 175 MWh at TEB, and finally between 80 MWh and 410 MWh at VNY as indicated in Figure 28. The corresponding power demand from the electric grid is provided in Figure 29.
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74 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Figure 28. Electric energy demand for different levels of electric aircraft market penetration at a selection of airports for personal use operations.
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 75 in a class Delta airspace that is eligible to receive Essential Air Services subsidies. The second is Molokai Hoolehua Airport (MKK)
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76 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Figure 31. Electric energy demand for different levels of electric aircraft market penetration at a selection of airports for commuter operations.
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 77 Regional Air Cargo Regional air cargo operations are similar to commuter operations in terms of aircraft size and average mission length. One difference is their slower tempo of operations, resulting in long ground turnaround times and reduced daily utilization.
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78 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Power demand is estimated between 175 kW and 200 kW at MCN, between 550 kW and 2.5 MW at MKK, between 550 kW and 3 MW at HYA, and between 175 kW and 750 kW at BOI. A 50 percent market penetration for electric aircraft yields a power demand ranging between 200 kW and 1.6 MW to support regional air cargo operations at these four airports.
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 79 batteries and electric motors will provide half of the required power (4 MW) , which is about 2 MW.
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80 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Figure 36. Electric energy demand for different levels of electric aircraft market penetration at a selection of major hub airports supporting regional aircraft operations.
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 81 Use Case Example Operation Tempo Vehicle Power Requirement Charging Infrastructure Airport Power Requirement Airport Energy Requirement Flight Training Pipistrel Alpha Electro High ~60 kW Charger @ 20 kW 25 – 1,800 kW 8 – 620 MWh Personal Use Bye Aerospace SunFlyer 4 / Eflyer 4 Low ~105 kW Charger @ 10 kW 100 – 1,700 kW 50 – 600 MWh Air Taxi Bye Aerospace SunFlyer 4 / Eflyer 4 Very High ~105 kW Super-Fast Charger @ 600 kW 100 – 1,700 kW 35 – 600 MWh Commuter Eviation Alice Very High ~260 kW Battery Swaps & Charger @ 60 kW 50 – 3,000 kW 0.5 – 70 MWh Air Cargo Eviation Alice Low ~260 kW Fast Charger @ 200 kW 200 – 3,000 kW 0.5 – 70 MWh Regional Airline UTC Project 804 High ~4 MW ~2 MW electric (50%) Battery Swaps & Super-Fast 550 – 7,200 kW 200 – 5,000 MWh Charger @ 600 kW Table 11.
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82 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies (Re) emergence of Regional Airports An increase in the regional flight demand at some airports at the 2030 horizon would require adapting the passenger terminal facilities to accommodate such demand.
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Impact of Electric Aviation on the Demand 83 typically walk to the hold room and then walk to the plane on foot. Most of the time, passengers must take stairs or elevators to descend from the main terminal floor to the ramp level.
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84 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies • Improve the ability of single-piloted aircraft to operate safely in complex airspace (that is, at airports and in airways with many and diverse operators)
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85 C H A P T E R 8 8.1 Introduction The total number of active electric aircraft is expected to remain low until at least 2030. During this period, impacts on airside facilities will likely center on the initial infrastructure necessary to support early electric aircraft operations.
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86 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Figure 38. Electric aircraft charging via xed charging stations.
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Airside Requirements 87 Figure 42. Aircraft refueling by fueling truck.
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88 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Fixed or Mobile Chargers Many airports already supply electric power to aircraft at the gate. In particular, commercial service airports provide fixed 400 Hertz (Hz)
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Airside Requirements 89 8.3 Hydrogen Infrastructure Emergence of Hydrogen as an Aviation Fuel Hydrogen is another promising energy vector for electric aviation, especially for larger aircraft. The advantage of H2 is its high-energy density or the electrical energy potential of hydrogen processed by fuel cells compared to its weight.
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90 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Hydrogen Production Hydrogen can be produced from different energy resources such as solar, wind, and nuclear, using raw materials such as water, natural, gas, and coal. Table 16 shows different hydrogen production processes with their corresponding energy source, feed stock, and cost of production.
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Airside Requirements 91 Process Energy Source Feed Stock Capital Cost ) ($ million a Hydrogen Cost ($/kg)
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92 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies e Type I containers are the most common, whereas the Type III and IV are more expensive. Transporting compressed hydrogen gas in high-pressure tube trailers is expensive and used primarily for distances of 200 miles (322 km)
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Airside Requirements 93 Hydrogen Delivery to Aircraft Because of the preliminary stage of the development of hydrogen-fueled aircraft, understanding of the amount of hydrogen needed to fuel different aircraft sizes, fuel tank capacities, and methods of fueling are not definite. Taking hydrogen fueling methods into consideration, hydrogen aircraft can be fueled three ways: • Container Swapping: Empty containers in aircraft are taken out and replaced by filled containers.
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Figure 46. Fixed electric aircraft charger electricity supply.
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Airside Requirements 95 Figure 47. Battery swap and mobile supercharging process.
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Figure 48. H2 container swap and tank refilling process from off-airport production unit.
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Figure 49. H2 container swap and tank refilling process from on-airport production unit.
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98 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies overall growth in electric demand at airports (see Table 17)
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Airside Requirements 99 Solar power presents a viable option for airports because they can provide significant amount of space needed for large-scale solar power generation. Several U.S.
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100 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Institution Standard Comments FAA AC 150/5300-13A and -13B (Draft) – Airport Design This document features the FAA airfield design standards.
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101 C H A P T E R 9 9.1 Alternatives Development Developing alternatives is a crucial part of all planning processes. It is the next step after determining additional facilities that will be needed to fulfill or accommodate an airport's future needs and demands, also known as facility requirements.
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102 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies • Step 9: Select Preferred Primary Element Alternative. This step selects and documents the preferred primary element alternative.
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Developing Alternatives 103 planners should identify and assess potential locations where the trucks could be charged within the airport property and where these trucks could park after their operations. Charging these supercharger-like devices could be done on an off-airport property, and the airport and stakeholders should coordinate on the entrance of these trucks to the apron.
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104 C H A P T E R 1 0 10.1 Background Airports get their power from a large patchwork of different private and public entities. There are approximately 3,300 utilities in the United States.
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Electric Industry Trends 105 sensors and innovative demand response contracts, while the power supplies are constantly varying. The third major disruptive technology that is remaking how utilities and policymakers think about electricity is large-scale batteries that store electricity.
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106 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies rapidly transferred to the electric aircraft battery to enable a quick turnaround. Finally, batteries will provide critical fast-acting backup power in support of an airport microgrid.
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Electric Industry Trends 107 Solar power also offers opportunities for airports to advance their environmental and social governance priorities. In a new solar installation at JFK, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and the New York Power Authority installed a 5 MW plant for airport consumption and another 5 MW plant that will sell electricity at a discount to nearby low-income neighborhoods.
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108 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies (For example, an electric vehicle would have a much higher impact in a state that relies heavily on coal than in a state that primarily uses hydroelectric or wind power.) Electric vehicles are experiencing integration challenges with existing planning, mobility, and policy framework as the sector continues to innovate and expand.
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109 C H A P T E R 1 1 11.1 Introduction Electric aircraft have emerged as an integral component of the broader electrification of transportation and mobility networks. Electric mobility has been heralded as a step toward reaching climate goals and improving air quality.
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110 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies good job at reducing the energy intensity of serving each customer, as shown in its self-published data (Figure 53)
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Airport Electric Demand 111 The potential load growth from this equipment may double airport peak electrical loads in the next 20 years. Electric aircraft could be as little as 10 percent of that growth, or could be up to 50 percent of that growth, depending on acceptance of electric aircraft.
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112 C H A P T E R 1 2 Electric aircraft are going to significantly change the electric demand profile of airports. The largest aircraft will require large, new power supplies to charge the batteries.
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Electric Aircraft Demand 113 12.2 Proprietary Charging Standards Many aircraft manufacturers have implemented custom proprietary charging connectors to meet their specific needs on early prototypes. This is beneficial because it allows the manufacturer to manage the design requirements and charging needs of the specific aircraft rather than cater the aircraft to a specific standard.
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114 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies batteries somewhere on the site, which could take a day to charge. As long as the operator has a fresh bank of batteries available for the next day's flights, additional electrical infrastructure upgrades may not be needed, or at least the needs could be greatly reduced.
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115 Power Generation and Management 13.1 Power Management The advent of low-cost computing has helped improve power and building management technologies. However, according to extensive study by James Dice from Nexus, technology in buildings is decades behind other industries.
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116 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Building management systems have been traditionally used to control HVAC loads within buildings. These systems are getting more sophisticated by using digital twins, fault detection and diagnostics, machine learning, data lakes, and cloud computing.
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Power Generation and Management 117 aircraft may have different flight characteristics; however, in certain applications (e.g., short-haul and cargo service) , electric power may be more efficient than jet engines that use fossil fuel.
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118 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Date Airport Name 3-Letter FAA Code Country Duration Operational Impacts 7/30/2012 Delhi Indira Gandhi Intl. DEL India Several hours Despite a multistate outage due to a massive failure of the northern grid of the country, 95% of the airport activity was preserved.
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Power Generation and Management 119 • Storms can damage electric distribution facilities and electric generation facilities. • Droughts and high winds across the West, especially in California, are increasing the wildfire risk, which has led to pre-emptive Public Safety Power Shutoff events.
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120 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Roughly 95 percent of generators used today by commercial buildings and critical facilities are powered by either diesel or natural gas. Apart from differences in costs, an important distinction between the two fuels is that diesel is supplied by truck deliveries and stored on-site, while natural gas is supplied by pipeline.
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Power Generation and Management 121 nighttime, and release that energy when power is expensive. Unlike generators, batteries have a limited time duration and get more expensive the longer they are required.
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122 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies by-product. However, unlike a natural gas combustion generator, a natural gas fuel-cell generator avoids the production of NOx and particulate matter air pollutants.
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Power Generation and Management 123 Microgrids and Other Options Microgrids are an emerging solution set that may help airports save on operating costs while still providing the backup power discussed in this report. Microgrids consist of on-site power generation sources that can run during blue-sky operations, but also run in full "island mode" during power outages (i.e., serving as the sole source of power for the local user)
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124 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Capital Costs Included in the considerations for determining the capital cost of each backup power strategy are the costs associated with procuring the unit itself, fuel storage costs, and installation costs. In this analysis, each item cost is broken down by cost per kilowatt to provide a standard metric of evaluation.
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Power Generation and Management 125 low operational hours, it can be assumed that the majority of the maintenance performed will be scheduled maintenance and testing. The maintenance costs (Table 25)
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126 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies generators emit the least pollutants in total. In contrast, the operation of diesel generators has the highest daily total emission for GHGs, SOx, and particulate matter, while natural gas generators emit the most NOx daily.
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Power Generation and Management 127 Sources: NREL.
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128 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Research also shows that significant hydrogen leakage could have negative effects on the atmosphere, such as increasing the lifetime of methane, increasing climate effects, and causing some depletion of the ozone layer. The research found that overall air quality in the lower atmosphere will still improve if hydrogen is introduced to the future mix of energy sources due to the reduction of fossil fuel use.
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129 Infrastructure Upgrades 14.1 Introduction As described in the previous chapters, the total number of active electric aircraft is expected to reach approximately 2 percent of the entire U.S. aircraft fleet in 2030.
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130 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies existing facilities and will vary from airport to airport. The potential needs for upgrading the airport electricity infrastructure to support the future demand and ensure adequate resiliency must be planned in close collaboration with the electricity companies.
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Infrastructure Upgrades 131 The Assessment Tool provides airports and their stakeholders with an estimate of the future power requirements of electric aircraft and the overall electrification of airports. 14.4 Hydrogen Infrastructure Hydrogen will power some electric aircraft through fuel cells.
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132 Financial Planning Full implementation of any project must include an extensive look into a project's financial aspects required to develop, operate, and maintain the associated infrastructure and labor. Airports should develop or obtain a feasible or realistically attainable financial plan to help implement projects such as electric aircraft.
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Financial Planning 133 quality is compromised according to EPA standards, and about 125 U.S. airports are eligible for this program.
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134 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies specific to aviation and concern the enhancement of regional transportation systems, they could include funding the integration of electric aircraft at this regional infrastructure: • The Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development Transportation Discretionary Grant program was created in 2009 as an incentive to enhance environmental problems and reduce the U.S. dependence on energy.
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Financial Planning 135 covers the introduction, development, and implementation of electric aircraft and its components such as battery pack development -- are considered incentivized projects because they support current efforts for a greener environment. WSDOT's electric aircraft feasibility study points to the Seattle-Tacoma International Airport as becoming one of the first potential airports to provide biofuels to its customers.
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136 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies an increase in revenues. Some of these airport revenue-generating sources include concessions, parking fees, fueling operations, airlines' landing fees, etc.
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137 C H A P T E R 1 6 16.1 Introduction Neither the FAA's Terminal Area Forecast nor its Aerospace Forecast feature projections for electric aviation; however, the latter has provisions on UAS. Consequently, individual airports should discuss and collaborate with their local stakeholders and governments to understand their vision and potential interests regarding these new technologies.
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From page 138... ...
138 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies demand loads and types of charging solutions. As explained in Chapter 8, Airside Requirements, three types of recharging solutions are feasible: • Recharge by fixed ground chargers, also known as charging stations.
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From page 139... ...
Airport Scenario Planning 139 2030. It is more realistic that the first large electric aircraft will be in service at least in 2040.
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From page 140... ...
140 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Assessment Tool: Electric Aircraft With the ACRP 03-51 Assessment Tool, airport planners can evaluate the growth of electric demand, in-peak MW load and annual MWh load, and the number of required charging stations. As a conservative assumption, all electric aircraft are charged with fixed chargers.
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From page 141... ...
Airport Scenario Planning 141 but should be considered for any air eld improvements requiring the installation of visual aids or navigational aid equipment. • eGSE vehicles: Many airports are electrifying their GSE vehicles, which are ideally suited for conversion, due to their short range, and their frequent need to start and stop.
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From page 142... ...
142 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies trends for airports and airlines to transition to electric vehicles. By 2050, this scenario assumes that all the U.S.
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From page 143... ...
Airport Scenario Planning 143 16.5 Passenger Terminal Requirements Airport planners should assess passenger terminal power supply requirements. Passengers on electric aircra will not directly impact the electric loads, but the number of enplanements will.
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From page 144... ...
144 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Assessment Tool: Passenger Terminal With the ACRP 03-51 Assessment Tool, airport planners can estimate the growth of electric demand for passenger terminal buildings. Assessing these demands can be very challenging for airports, depending on their sizes and their HVAC system configurations.
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Airport Scenario Planning 145 1. Annual Enplanements vs.
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146 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies The correlation factors of these equations are pretty low, due to the small sample size of airports (less than 40 airports)
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From page 147... ...
Airport Scenario Planning 147 Electric vehicles already exist in the U.S. market, and over the years, the number of these vehicles has increased.
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From page 148... ...
148 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies • Upside Scenario – Shuttle/Bus: This scenario assumes that, by 2040, all airport shuttles/buses will be electric. These vehicles typically cover short distances (less than 20 miles)
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From page 149... ...
Airport Scenario Planning 149 • Rental Car: The tool assumes that rental cars will need to be charged faster to be operational as soon as possible for the next client; therefore, slow and fast chargers are set as default values. • Taxi/TNC: Taxis/TNCs usually just pick up passengers and do not stay at the airport; therefore, the tool assumes that fast chargers will be used for these vehicles.
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From page 150... ...
150 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Calculations for Shuttle/Bus and Rental Car The Assessment Tool will provide three types of requirements: the number of chargers, the peak MW load and the annual MWh load. • Number of chargers: To estimate the number of chargers, the tool assumes a charger-vehicle ratio that can be modified by the user.
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From page 151... ...
Airport Scenario Planning 151 Calculations for Taxi/TNC The Assessment Tool will provide three types of requirements: the number of chargers, the peak MW load, and the annual MWh load. • Number of chargers: To estimate the number of chargers, the tool divides the MW load by the assumed charger speed/output power in kW, then multiplies it by 1,000.
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From page 152... ...
152 Accounting for Electric Aircraft into Long-Term Planning Documents 17.1 Integration in Master Plans The Airport Master Planning Process Long-term airport development and planning are governed by individual airport master plans. Master plans are intended to develop airports safely and efficiently by looking toward the future to dictate development and planning needs.
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Accounting for Electric Aircraft into Long-Term Planning Documents 153 Airport master plans are eligible for FAA funding. The FAA typically reviews and approves the aviation forecast and the ALP.
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From page 154... ...
154 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies and must be submitted to the FAA for review and approval, before being used as a basis for the facility requirements. – Electric Aircraft: Aircraft fleet mix projections are a component of the master planning process that also must consider electric aircraft in the future as private owners, training centers, and air carriers are able to integrate them into their fleets.
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From page 155... ...
Accounting for Electric Aircraft into Long-Term Planning Documents 155 6. Alternatives Development and Assessment: Based on the facility requirements, the alternatives development process is to identify alternative ways to address previously identified facility requirements; to evaluate the alternatives, individually and collectively; to gain a thorough understanding of the strengths, weaknesses, and other implications of each; and, finally, to select a recommended alternative.
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From page 156... ...
156 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies 17.2 Statewide Aviation Plans State aviation system planning is a strategic process to assess all public-use airports in a given state, determine their and their users' current and future needs, and identify the relationship between the airports and their ability to meet forecast demands. These plans are also used to evaluate funding priorities and policy, or regulatory changes needed to ensure the system's safety and capacity.
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From page 157... ...
Accounting for Electric Aircraft into Long-Term Planning Documents 157 not provide to date a specific electric aircraft forecast including in its Terminal Area Forecast and Aerospace Forecast.
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From page 158... ...
158 Bibliography Alcock, Charles. Bye Electric eFlyer 800 Seeks to End King Air's Reign.
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From page 159... ...
Bibliography 159 JAXA Aeronautics. Next Generation Aeronautical Innovation Hub Center, 2021.
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160 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies Wheeler, P., J Clare, A
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161 Appendices A–F are available from the TRB website (TRB.org) by searching for "ACRP Research Report 236." Appendix A: Market Assessment: Other Segments of Electric Aircraft Value Chain Appendix B: Market Assessment: Model Assumptions Appendix C: Electric Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning Appendix D: Electric Aircraft Safety Review Appendix E: Industry Standards: Applicability and Needs Appendix F: Summary of Electric Aircraft Workshops Appendices A–F
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From page 162... ...
162 Acronyms and Abbreviations AAAE American Association of Airport Executives AATF Airport and Airway Trust Fund AAM advanced air mobility AC advisory circular ACARE Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe ACC Airports Consultants Council ACDM Airport Collaborative Decision-Making ACI–NA Airports Council–North America ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program AEDT Aviation Environmental Design Tool AIP Airport Improvement Program ALP Airport Layout Plan ALPA Air Line Pilots Association, International AOPA Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association APU auxiliary power unit ARFF airport rescue and firefighting ATCM Airborne Toxic Control Measures ATL Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport ATR autothermal reforming BOI Boise Air Terminal BOS Boston Logan International Airport CAA Clean Air Act CAGR compound annual growth rate CASA Civil Aviation Safety Authority (Australia) CCS Combined Charging System CFR Code of Federal Regulation CLEEN Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions, and Noise CNI Paulding Northwest Atlanta Regional Airport CO carbon monoxide CO2 carbon dioxide COP coefficient of performance CORSIA Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation CRQ McClellan-Palomar Airport CTOL conventional takeoff and landing CVG Cincinnati Northern Kentucky International Airport DC direct current DFW Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport DNL day-night average sound level
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From page 163... ...
Acronyms and Abbreviations 163 DOT Department of Transportation EAA Experimental Aircraft Association e-aircraft electric aircraft EASA European Union Aviation Safety Agency ECLAIR Electrification Challenge for Aircraft eGSE electrical ground support equipment EPA Environmental Protection Agency EUROCAE European Organization for Civil Aviation Equipment eVTOL electric vertical takeoff and landing FAA Federal Aviation Administration FBO fixed-base operator FSP flight service provider GAMA General Aviation Manufacturer's Association g/bhp-hour grams per brake horsepower-hour GFK Grand Fork International Airport GHG greenhouse gas GPU ground power unit GRF Green Revolving Funds GSE ground support equipment H2 hydrogen HIAL Highlands and Islands Airports Limited hp horsepower HVAC heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HYA Hyannis Barnstable Airport IATA International Air Transport Association ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization ISO independent system operator JFK John F Kennedy International Airport JAXA Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency kW kilowatt kWh kilowatt-hour LAA Light Aircraft Association LED light-emitting diode MCN Middle Georgia Regional Airport MKK Molokai Hoolehua Airport MRO maintenance, repair, and overhaul MTOW maximum takeoff weight MW megawatt MWh megawatt-hours NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards NAS National Airspace System NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NFPA National Fire Protection Association NM nautical miles NOx nitrogen oxide O&M operation and maintenance OEM original equipment manufacturer PAB private activity bond PBN Performance-Based Navigation
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From page 164... ...
164 Preparing Your Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies PDK Dekalb-Peachtree Airport PFC passenger facility charge PKZ-1 Petróczy-Kármán-Žurovec 1 PPF pounds per flight PRC Prescott Regional Airport PV photovoltaic RAM Regional Air Mobility RNAV Area Navigation RTO regional transmission organization SAE Society of Automotive Engineers SATS Small Aircraft Transportation System SFO San Francisco International Airport SMR steam methane reforming SOx sulfur dioxides STC Supplemental Type Certificate STL St. Louis Lambert International Airport STOL short takeoff and landing TC Type Certificate TEB Teterboro Airport TMB Miami Executive Airport TNC transportation network company TPRD thermal pressure relief device TRACON Terminal Radar Approach Control Facilities UAM Urban Air Mobility UAS unmanned aerial systems UK United Kingdom UKRI UK Research and Innovation UTC United Technologies Corporation VALE Voluntary Airport Low Emissions VNY Van Nuys Airport VOC Volatile Organic Compounds VTOL vertical takeoff and landing W/kg Watts per kilogram Wh/kg Watt-hours per kilogram WSDOT Washington State Department of Transportation
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From page 165... ...
Abbreviations and acronyms used without denitions in TRB publications: A4A Airlines for America AAAE American Association of Airport Executives AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program ADA Americans with Disabilities Act APTA American Public Transportation Association ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ATA American Trucking Associations CTAA Community Transportation Association of America CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program DHS Department of Homeland Security DOE Department of Energy EPA Environmental Protection Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FAST Fixing America's Surface Transportation Act (2015) FHWA Federal Highway Administration FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration FRA Federal Railroad Administration FTA Federal Transit Administration GHSA Governors Highway Safety Association HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (2012)
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From page 166... ...
Transportation Research Board 500 Fifth Street, NW Washington, DC 20001 ADDRESS SERVICE REQUESTED ISBN 978-0-309-09458-0 9 7 8 0 3 0 9 0 9 4 5 8 0 9 0 0 0 0
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Key Terms
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