Closing the Opportunity Gap for Young Children (2023) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
3 Opportunity Gaps in the Education Experienced by Children in Grades K3
3 Opportunity Gaps in the Education Experienced by Children in Grades K3
Pages 147-204
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 147... ...
We also highlight promising policies, practices, and programs with the potential to close the opportunity gap for children in grades K–3. The review of evidence presented in this chapter informed the committee's recommendations, presented in Chapter 8, for increasing access to equitable and high-quality learning, as well as creating more inclusive quality frameworks.
|
From page 148... ...
Research shows that these funding gaps, in combination with policies that have disproportionate negative effects on children from racialized1 and marginalized backgrounds and interpersonal biases among adults who work with children, result in unequal experiences for young children from racialized backgrounds, those in low-income communities, those who speak a language other than English, and those with disabilities. Further, the misalignment between the ECE and early elementary systems in their definitions and expectations of quality disrupts continuity in gains experienced by young children and further perpetuates opportunity gaps.
|
From page 149... ...
For instance, small school districts serving mainly White students receive $23 billion more than districts serving minority majority districts (EdBuild, 2019)
|
From page 150... ...
• Many of the lowest-funding states, such as Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, North Carolina, and Texas, allocate a very low percentage of their states' economic capacity to funding for public education. • Twenty‐one states are regressive, providing less funding to school districts with higher concentrations of low‐income students.
|
From page 151... ...
for low-income learners would eliminate the achievement gap between high- and low-income students. Three states stand out for instituting school spending reforms that have produced noteworthy improvements in student outcomes and achievement gaps (Baker, 2017)
|
From page 152... ...
Cruz and colleagues (2020) report a positive association between greater spending on special education programs and growth in the number of students with disabilities meeting or exceeding standards for English language arts.
|
From page 153... ...
A survey from the Afterschool Alliance found that, if given the opportunity, 58% of Black children and 55% of Latino children, compared with 46% of White children, would enroll in school-age after-school programs. In rural communities, more than 4.5 million children who are not in OST programming would be if a program were available to them -- a 43% increase since 2014; 52% of respondents in rural communities were families with lower incomes.
|
From page 154... ...
. In almost every category, children of color, including Black, Latino, American Indian/Alaska Native, and Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, were overrepresented in the special education system, generally in the categories of intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities, and emotional/behavioral disorder (NRC, 2002; National Academies, 2019)
|
From page 155... ...
Part B) by Racial/Ethnic Group and Disability Category, Fall 2019 Native Hawaiian or American Indian Asian Black or African Hispanic/ Other Pacific Two or More Disability or Alaska Native American American Latino Islander White Races All disabilities 1.6 0.5 1.4 1.1 1.5 0.9 1.1 Autism 0.9 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.3 0.9 1.2 Deaf-blindnessa 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.9 2.6 1.1 1.0 Developmental 3.8 0.5 1.5 0.8 2.0 0.9 1.5 delayb Emotional 1.6 0.2 1.8 0.7 1.1 1.0 1.5 disturbance Hearing impairment 1.5 1.2 0.9 1.4 2.6 0.7 0.9 Intellectual disability 1.5 0.5 2.2 1.1 1.8 0.6 0.8 Multiple disabilities 1.9 0.7 1.3 0.8 2.2 1.1 1.0 Orthopedic 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.8 0.9 0.9 impairment Other health 1.2 0.3 1.4 0.8 1.1 1.1 1.2 impairment Specific learning disability 1.8 0.3 1.4 1.4 1.7 0.7 1.0 Speech or language impairment 1.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.1 (continued)
|
From page 156... ...
For example, if racial/ethnic group X has a risk ratio of 2 for receipt of special education services, then that group's likelihood of receiving special education services is twice as great as that for all of the other racial/ethnic groups combined. Risk ratio was calculated by dividing the risk index for the racial/ethnic group by the risk index for all the other racial/ethnic groups combined.
|
From page 157... ...
(2019) used individual-level data from three states to analyze racial disparities in special education.
|
From page 159... ...
2Students who received special education and related services outside the regular classroom for less than 21% of the school day were placed in the inside the regular class 80% or more of the day educational environment category. 3"Other environments" consists of separate school, residential facility, homebound/hospital, correctional facilities, and parentally placed in private schools.
|
From page 160... ...
When considering SES by disaggregated free and reduced lunch measures, results were mixed. When using more specific continuous or composite indicators, much of the variability in special education identification could be attributed to SES.
|
From page 161... ...
found that African American and Latino students were identified in later grades relative to White students in the categories of emotional/behavioral disorders and intellectual disabilities, which tend to be served in more segregated settings compared with other disability categories. Table 3-2 presents the odds ratios for special education identification by grade.
|
From page 162... ...
Odds ratio = 1.0 indicates parity of probability of being placed in special education. AAPI = Asian American/Pacific Islander; AI/AN = American Indian/Alaska Native; EML = emerging multilingual learner; FRPL = free and reduced-price lunch.
|
From page 163... ...
. Table 3-3 outlines similarities in behaviors associated with second language acquisition and learning disability that can potentially lead to incorrect referrals to special education for English learners.
|
From page 164... ...
. Of note, this latter group had a substantially higher probability of being identified in the learning disability, language impairment, and intellectual disability categories relative to the other three groups (English learners with limited English proficiency, English-proficient learners, and White learners; Artiles et al., 2005)
|
From page 165... ...
. That study also found a higher incidence of chronic absenteeism in children from minoritized backgrounds and from households led by a single mother, with a high number of children, or with parents with lower educational attainment.
|
From page 166... ...
. Therefore, school infrastructure to support violence prevention, conflict resolution, and related measures is considered important to reducing chronic absenteeism (Kearney & Childs, 2021)
|
From page 167... ...
; school-, district-, or state-level factors (e.g., funding, discipline policies, access to the curricula, ratios/class sizes, use of ability grouping in classrooms, organizational culture, community/family engagement) ; teacher-level factors (e.g., teacher turnover, teacher absences, distribution of well-qualified educators, educator bias)
|
From page 168... ...
to better understand how these factors may affect opportunity gaps and perpetuate disparate outcomes. It is important to note that many factors come into play in examining ratios and class sizes, including the differences in ratios and class sizes being examined (e.g., 30 vs.
|
From page 169... ...
Harsh and Exclusionary Discipline Policies Another structural dimension of quality that influences opportunity gaps is discipline policies and practices. In the 1990s and early 2000s, a zero tolerance approach to discipline took hold across the country, initially as a response to school safety concerns.
|
From page 170... ...
An analysis of Civil Rights Data Collection data (2015–2016 school year) for children in pre-K through elementary school found that Black children were disproportionately suspended and expelled in every state in the nation (Meek at al., 2020)
|
From page 171... ...
. Overall, it has been reported that statewide racial disparities in discipline mask deeper disparities across school districts and schools (Losen, 2017)
|
From page 172... ...
found that school districts with high rates of suspension tended to apply disciplinary sanctions to students of color for minor infractions and nonviolent or nonthreatening behaviors, such as tardiness, loitering in the hall, dress code violations, truancy, profanity, carrying a cell phone, and smoking cigarettes. Research has provided evidence of racial bias in the perceptions of children's behavior and the discipline decisions made by adults in learning systems (see Marcelo & Yates, 2014; Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015; Gilliam et al., 2016; Meek et al., 2020)
|
From page 173... ...
For instance, Chin (2021) found that as schools decreased levels of racial segregation, racial disparities in discipline and special education identification increased.
|
From page 174... ...
. As with exclusionary discipline, Black children, boys, and children with disabilities are disproportionately subjected to corporal punishment.
|
From page 175... ...
As with exclusionary discipline and corporal punishment, there is no federal law prohibiting these practices, while a patchwork of state laws limit or place parameters around their use (Meek et al., 2020)
|
From page 176... ...
Positive critical teacher–child relationships, and all of their associated processes, are related to third-grade achievement and to children's perceptions of school, including feeling more positive about school and more excited about learning (Birch & Ladd, 1997; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2002; Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004; O'Connor & McCartney, 2007)
|
From page 177... ...
. Together, these factors drive gaps in the quality of teacher–child relationships and daily interactions, which can contribute to opportunity gaps.
|
From page 178... ...
. Studies have shown as well that White compared with Black teachers are more likely to recommend exclusionary discipline and special education placement for Black children (Achilles, McLaughlin, & Croninger, 2007; Skiba et al., 2011; Wiley et al., 2013; Sullivan et al., 2014)
|
From page 179... ...
found that after the second infraction, teachers were more likely to label Black relative to White children as "troublemakers," which may imply attribution of the behaviors in the report to factors internal to the children and the belief that there was a higher likelihood that the behaviors would continue. Teachers were also more likely to recommend exclusionary discipline for Black children compared with their White peers after the second infraction (Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015)
|
From page 180... ...
Overall, this body of work indicates that Black children, and in many cases Latino, Indigenous, immigrant, and dual language learner children, are subject to bias across an array of domains, including perceptions of behavior, expectations, and empathy. This bias contributes not only to the quality of teacher–child relationships and interactions but also more generally to reduced opportunities in learning settings that can shape children's learning experiences.
|
From page 181... ...
. High-quality and culturally responsive pedagogy and instruction are important factors in children's learning experiences.
|
From page 182... ...
. Other research has found that even when researchers control for children's academic profiles, test scores, and socioeconomic backgrounds, Black children are still underreferred (Grissom & Redding, 2016)
|
From page 183... ...
, and children experienced slower learning growth or unrealized learning opportunities (Dorn et al., 2020; Huff, 2020; Renaissance Learning, 2020; Amplify, 2021; Engzell, Frey, & Verhagen, 2021; Lewis et al., 2021; McGinty et al., 2021; Ohio Department of Education, 2021; Storey & Zhang, 2021; Texas Education Agency, 2021; National Center for Education Statistics [NCES]
|
From page 184... ...
Progressive school funding allocations have been shown to have both short- and long-term effects on student outcomes, especially for students from families with low incomes. In fall 2020, many large school districts reported substantial declines in enrollment -- especially in kindergarten, where enrollment decreased by an average of 16%.
|
From page 185... ...
These experiences include high-quality instruction and assetdriven pedagogies, assessments, and curricula; social-emotional and mental health supports and policies to explicitly reduce exclusionary and harsh discipline and eliminate disparities in such practices; full inclusion of children with disabilities in general education settings, with high-quality and individualized services and supports; bilingual learning opportunities for children who are English learners and dual language learners; structurally sound, safe, healthy, and engaging learning environments; a well-qualified, fairly compensated, and supported teacher workforce; data-driven, continuous quality improvement efforts targeted at identifying and addressing opportunity and outcome gaps; authentic and meaningful family engagement and partnerships; community partnerships and engagement to promote
|
From page 186... ...
. Understanding disability: High-quality evidence in research on special education disproportionality.
|
From page 187... ...
. Representation of minority students in special education: Complicating traditional explanations: Editors' introduction.
|
From page 188... ...
. Showing up matters: Newark chronic absenteeism in the early years.
|
From page 189... ...
. Understanding the empty backpack: The role of timing in disproportionate special education identification.
|
From page 190... ...
. Chronic absenteeism in the nation's schools: A hidden edu cational crisis.
|
From page 191... ...
. Teacher race and racial disparities in special education.
|
From page 192... ...
. Chronic absenteeism and preschool chil dren's executive functioning skills development.
|
From page 193... ...
. Racial differences in special education identification and placement: Evidence across three states.
|
From page 194... ...
The persistent, painful and problematic practice of corporal punishment in schools. Southern Poverty Law Center and The Center for Civil Rights Remedies.
|
From page 195... ...
. Unpacking the logic of compliance in special education: Contextual influences on discipline racial disparities in suburban schools.
|
From page 196... ...
. Teacher–child relationship quality and academic achievement in elementary school: Does gender matter?
|
From page 197... ...
. Minorities are disproportionately underrepresented in special education: Longi tudinal evidence across five disability conditions.
|
From page 198... ...
. Distinguishing disability: Parents, privilege, and special education.
|
From page 199... ...
How modern federal civil rights enforcement is used to address racial discrimination in school discipline. (Ed Working Paper No.
|
From page 200... ...
. Racial disparities in school-based disciplinary actions are associated with county-level rates of racial bias.
|
From page 201... ...
. Achieving equity in special education: History, status, and current challenges.
|
From page 202... ...
. Theorizing racial inequity in special education: Applying structural inequity theory to disproportionality.
|
From page 203... ...
A longitudinal study in Chi cago public schools. Remedial and Special Education, 41(3)
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.