Closing the Opportunity Gap for Young Children (2023) / Chapter Skim
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2 Opportunity Gaps in Early Care and Education Experienced by Children from Birth to Pre-K
2 Opportunity Gaps in Early Care and Education Experienced by Children from Birth to Pre-K
Pages 63-146
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From page 63... ...
Instead, as discussed in detail in Chapter 1, the committee focused its attention on the opportunity gaps that have resulted in these outcome gaps, and on the historical and structural drivers of these opportunity gaps. In this chapter and Chapter 3, respectively, we review the evidence on those drivers and their effects on the outcomes experienced by young children with respect to early care and education (ECE)
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From page 64... ...
. The Perry Preschool Program followed a sample of 123 Black children from low-income households through age 40 (Schweinhart et al., 2005)
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From page 65... ...
. This evaluation approach can better inform policy and practices that support the development of Black children and other children of color (Allen et al., 2021; Bruno & Iruka, 2022)
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From page 66... ...
. Research has also identified associations between Head Start enrollment and health outcomes, including better overall health, less obesity, increased dental care, and higher likelihood of having health insurance, compared with non–Head Start ECE programs (Alford, 2009; Puma et al., 2010; Lumeng
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From page 67... ...
, which used random assignment to create treatment and control groups, found that children in these programs made significant gains initially, but by as early as first grade, their peers in the control group had caught up in their cognitive and social-emotional development. In the Head Start study, however, certain subgroups, such as dual language learners, children with disabilities, and children from "high-risk households," sustained gains made during the preschool year through first and third grade (Puma et al., 2010, 2012)
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From page 68... ...
. Both of these pathways have featured prominently in the previously discussed landmark studies, and it is important to note that, particularly in Head Start, family engagement and wellness are a core part of the model.
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From page 69... ...
It also underlines, however, how differences in children's access to high-quality ECE programs and disparate experiences within programs can be major contributors to the opportunity gaps that lead to deficits in later development and achievement. Indeed, despite the well-documented and robust benefits of high-quality ECE, access to these programs has consistently been less attainable for children from such communities.
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From page 70... ...
. CURRENT POLICY, FUNDING, AND SYSTEMS The disparate histories of ECE programs in the United States -- such as Head Start and state-funded pre-K, and child care -- and the policy goals they were designed to address, as described in Chapter 1, have resulted in the lack of a coherent, intentional approach to ECE.
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From page 71... ...
Compared with child care programs, Head Start and state pre-K programs tend to have higher standards and compensation for lead teachers, more rigorous education program standards, and more access to public funding, although it is important to note that because state pre-K standards and investment amounts vary across states, quality and access vary accordingly, with some states having very poorly funded systems. Head Start also provides services -- such as health screenings, mental health and dental health supports, and family engagement and leadership programs -- that target the comprehensive needs of children and families from low-income households.
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From page 72... ...
. Under this funding model, child care programs that are not part of the Head Start or state pre-K system rely on revenue streams that are much less stable and robust, which impacts the extent to which these programs can support and sustain quality services, including professional development and retention strategies for their staff.
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From page 73... ...
suspected disabilities disabilities; standards under age 3; standards in line with IDEA in line with IDEA law law and regulations, and regulations including access to a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment possible Funding per Child Federal guidance $8,800 for preschool- Varies by state; per Federal funds are Federal funds are suggests states provide aged children, $12,800 child spending ranges allocated to states allocated to states subsidies at the for infants and from $527 in North to support early to support special 75th percentile of toddlers Dakota to $18,421 in intervention services education and the current market Washington, DCb for infants and related services for rate, although only toddlers; grants to preschoolers with one state meets that states range from disabilities; state standarda about $3 million in grants range from states with smaller less than $500,000 in populations to Washington, DC, to nearly $80 million in more than $60 million California in California 73 (continued)
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From page 74... ...
74 Head Start and Early IDEA Part B Section Dimension Child Care Head Start State Pre-K IDEA Part C 619 Copayment Yes No No, although some Requirements state pre-K programs allow for tuition based on a sliding-fee scale, mainly for families above the income eligibility level Teacher Qualifications Varies by state, but BA in early childhood Varies by state; most Varies by type of Varies by type of generally minimal education for at least programs require BA service provided service provided education requirements half of lead educators; with specialization beyond high school currently, about 73% in early childhood of Head Start teachers education meet this standard Teacher $10.60 (median wage $14.80 (median wage $15.00 (median wage Varies by type of Varies by type of Compensationc of all center-based for Head Start teachers for publicly funded service provider service provider ECE teachers) with BA or higher)
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From page 75... ...
Eligibility Parents who are 3- and 4-year-olds Varies by state; State-determined, Children aged 3–5 employed, in school, who live under the restricted mainly to including infants with developmental or in job training federal poverty children in low-income and toddlers with disabilities or delays programs whose level are eligible for households, although developmental delays family income falls Head Start, although many states take other or diagnosed with under 85% of state programs are allowed family or child factors disabilities that are median income can be to reserve 10% of their into consideration, likely to result in eligible for Child Care enrollment for children such as disabilities, developmental delays Development Block above that income abuse and neglect, Grant Act subsidies; level; the program homelessness, linguistic however, states have also has categorical background, military broad discretion to eligibility for duty, low birthweight, set more restrictive children experiencing substance abuse, or income eligibility homelessness, children teen parent levelsd involved in the child welfare system, and children with disabilities SOURCE: aSchulman, 2021; bFriedman-Krauss et al., 2021; cNational Survey of Early Care and Education Project Team, 2013; dUllrich, Schmit, & Cosse, 2019.
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From page 76... ...
First launched in 2014, this model provides funding through the Head Start system to forge partnerships with licensed child care providers who agree to meet rigorous Head Start standards for infants and toddlers. The model relies on layering child care subsidy funding with Early Head Start funding to enable programs to meet the Head Start Program Performance Standards.
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. Here, we review the literature on opportunity gaps in access to ECE programs that contribute to disparities in outcomes among groups of children.
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From page 78... ...
found that families who prioritize pro viders with more training and greater English proficiency tend to enroll their children in center-based programs, while those who pri oritize accessibility tend to choose home-based programs. Among immigrant families, a preference for "cultural similarity" was found to be most predictive of choosing a home-based program over other settings (Coley et al., 2014, p.
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From page 79... ...
The findings also show why it is important to understand the differences and disparities in funding, standards, and policies among the major ECE program types discussed in this chapter. If certain types of families tend to choose certain types of ECE arrangements that enjoy more or less support for quality, the disparate policies across ECE funding streams and settings could exacerbate opportunity gaps during the early years.
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From page 80... ...
, while Head Start serves fewer than half of all eligible children, and an even smaller percentage of eligible children in more ethnically/racially diverse states (Schmit & Walker, 2016; FriedmanKrauss et al., 2022)
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From page 81... ...
. Research also shows that Hispanic and Asian children are less likely than Black children to have access to Head Start programs in their immediate neighborhood or to receive state-level child care subsidies (Schmit & Walker, 2016; Ullrich, Schmit, & Cosse, 2019; Hardy & Huber, 2020)
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From page 82... ...
are arguably the only publicly funded programs designed to advance the early development of the youngest children (National Academies, 2018) , and Early Head Start serves only 3% of eligible children (National Academies, 2018)
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From page 83... ...
During the 2020–2021 program year, 287,000 fewer children were enrolled in Head Start, Early Head Start, American Indian/ Alaska Native Head Start programs, and Migrant and Seasonal Head Start programs. These enrollment rates represent a 33% decline in Head Start enrollment and a 10% decline for Early Head Start between 2018–2019 and 2020–2021.
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From page 84... ...
supply of licensed child care providers. Growing evidence reveals the existence not only of child care deserts but also of subsidized child care deserts -- there is shortage of subsidized child care slots in neighborhoods where eligible children live.
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. Families pay about 52% of the total cost of ECE in the United States, making it the only education level for which parents shoulder most of the FIGURE 2-4 Current enrollment in Head Start and state-funded preschool and the number of additional slots needed for universal pre-K.
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From page 86... ...
In sum, enrollment rates, cost rates, and difficulties reported by families suggest that many low- and middle-income families are unable to afford center-based child care services without public supports. Access to Early Intervention and Early Special Education for Children with Disabilities Another critical aspect of ECE is the identification of children with disabilities and these children's access to early intervention and preschool special education services.
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FIGURE 2-5 Weekly child care costs as a percentage of household (HH) income for low-income households that pay out of pocket, by race/ethnicity and nativity status.
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From page 88... ...
infants and toddlers with developmental and social emotional disabilities receive early intervention under IDEA Part C (Zablotsky et al., 2019; Office of Special Education Programs [OSEP]
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Fewer than 40% of children receiving services in this age group received the majority of those services in a regular early childhood program. A substantial proportion of children received services in a separate classroom, but that number fluctuated by race/ethnicity: 20% of White children, 26.5% of Black children, 28.4% of Latino children, and 34.4% of Asian American children (OSEP, 2021)
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From page 90... ...
. Notably, the Head Start program requires that 10% of a program's funded enrollment be for children with disabilities, and the program has a long history of supporting high-quality inclusion and accommodations for these children that even predates IDEA.
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From page 91... ...
. To summarize, access to high-quality early intervention and early childhood special education programs can have positive effects, although equity considerations need to be explicitly addressed throughout the identification and intervention processes because these factors can shape patterns of under- or overidentification of certain groups and the quality of services received.
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From page 92... ...
. Notably, while studies document information barriers experienced by Hispanic and immigrant families, the effects of these barriers on low-income White, Black, and Asian families have not been studied in depth Child care subsidies are particularly difficult for families to access within publicly provided ECE programs because these programs have strict work requirements and can be housed in human service systems with other
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From page 93... ...
. Thus, funding more ECE programs or slots will not be sufficient to increase access if agency staff and policy makers fail to understand and mitigate the barriers experienced by eligible families when they attempt to access services and benefits.
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. Most recently, a review of tiered quality rating and improvement systems in Pennsylvania found that White children were the most likely and Black children the least likely to be enrolled in programs rated higher quality, with the largest racial gaps seen in the youngest children -- infants (Babbs Hollett & Frankenberg, 2022)
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(B) FIGURE 2-6 Percentage of states' populations of 3- and 4-year-olds enrolled in state preschool programs by number of National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER)
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. As a matter of federal policy, Head Start incorporates many of the indicators typically included in the field's understanding of quality, including low adult:child ratios (fewer children per adult)
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These standards are accompanied by a funded system of quality improvement, supported by federal, regional, and local technical assistance. No state child care or pre-K system standards include all of the quality indicators in the Head Start Program Performance Standards.
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A comparison of Head Start, state pre-K, and other center-based programs by Bassok et al.
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From page 99... ...
According to a survey conducted by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) , 43% of Head Start programs had not tested lead levels in drinking water in the year prior to the survey, with another 31% reporting that they did not know whether this testing had been done (GAO, 2020)
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. Few studies have examined ratio and class size with attention to how their effects may differ for specific subgroups of children, including those in low-income households and those of color, and in turn, how these differences may contribute to opportunity gaps among these groups.
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From page 101... ...
Studies examining dual language models in ECE programs generally have found that children exposed to versus those not exposed to these models make significantly more gains in home language development, either in tandem with greater growth in English development or at the very least, at no cost to English development (National Academies, 2017; Oliva-Olson, 2019)
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. Closing opportunity gaps in this area will require specific policies to support the large and growing population of dual language learners in ECE systems today.
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From page 103... ...
For example, only 24 states collected information on a child's language background, 14 states required written plans for how programs would serve dual language learners, 17 states required assessing children in their home language, and only 6 states required staff training in or qualifications for working with these children (Nores, Krauss, & Frede, 2018)
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From page 104... ...
In 2016, HHS updated both the Head Start and child care regulations to include explicit language addressing exclusionary discipline. A wave of state and local policies followed, consisting primarily of new state legislative efforts to limit exclusionary discipline in public pre-K and early education, and modest executive efforts by governors and state agencies to prevent
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From page 105... ...
While policies related to workforce competencies, degree requirements, compensation, and systemic supports and coaching are structural in nature, the workforce is undoubtedly the most critical factor in process quality, as discussed below. Research shows that if ECE programs are to reduce opportunity gaps and systemic barriers to services and resources associated with racial, linguistic, cultural, economic, and immigrant background, they must be staffed by well-prepared, well-supported, and competent professionals.
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From page 106... ...
For example Ulrich, Hamm, and Schochet (2017) found that: • families with higher incomes are able to enroll their children in ECE programs that provide better professional supports for their staff; • children from families with low incomes who are enrolled in state pre-K or Head Start compared with those in other ECE programs tend to have ECE educators with more professional preparation and ongoing supports and better compensation and working condi tions; and • infants and toddlers compared with preschool-aged children from families with low incomes are less likely to be served by well trained and well-supported professionals.
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From page 107... ...
As discussed earlier, the major publicly funded ECE programs -- Head Start, state-funded pre-K, and child care -- were established for different purposes, and accordingly are governed by varying policies related to funding levels, eligibility criteria, and quality definitions and standards. One of the most important areas in which ECE programs differ is policies related to the professional workforce -- how they are prepared, paid, and supported.
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From page 108... ...
. Head Start regulations require that at least half of programs' lead teachers have the same level of professional preparation, although the current workforce well surpasses that mark, with almost 75% of all Head Start teachers having a BA in ECE (Barnett & Friedman-Krauss, 2016)
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From page 109... ...
It is also important that the attainment of higher degrees and credentials come with commensurate increases in compensation and benefits. Otherwise, ECE educators may opt to leave their ECE jobs for better-paying opportunities in public schools, in state-funded pre-K or Head Start programs, or outside of the field altogether.
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From page 110... ...
• ECE educators in Head Start, publicly funded pre-K, and school based pre-K are better paid than those in other settings (e.g., li censed child care) , although still well below the average of what K–12 teachers earn.
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From page 111... ...
SOURCE: NSECEP, 2013. Access to Professional Development and Supportive Working Conditions Professional development opportunities, such as in-service training, coaching, and communities of practice, can improve practice, teacher– child relationships, and child outcomes if they also incorporate design and implementation principles that research has associated with effectiveness.
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From page 112... ...
For example, only 15 states' QRIS support or incentivize paid time for professional development for center-based child care programs, and only one state's QRIS does the same for home-based programs. Sixteen states' QRIS include paid planning time as a quality standard for centers, while only eight states do so for home-based programs (McLean et al., 2021)
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From page 113... ...
. PROCESS AND INTERACTIONAL QUALITY All of the previously described structural dimensions of quality, alongside the competencies and credentials, compensation, and conditions of the teaching workforce, determine children's experiences in ECE programs and
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From page 114... ...
. Research also indicates that Black, Latino, dual language learner, and low-income children are more likely to be in ECE programs that engage in more individual and didactic instruction as opposed to child-directed or play-based models (Chien et al., 2010; Valentino, 2015)
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From page 115... ...
The researchers found no differences in children's observed pretend play profiles or adjustment. But they did find that the association between child pretend play profiles and teacher-rated adjustment was moderated by race, such that teachers rated Black children with imaginative and expressive play profiles more negatively (e.g., more teacher–child conflict, less prepared for school, less peer acceptance)
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From page 116... ...
Recent research on ECE programs considered to be high quality, including programs in Boston and Tulsa, showed higher scores in instructional support in particular (Mashburn et al., 2008; Phillips, Gormley, & Lowenstein, 2009; Moiduddin et al., 2012; Weiland & Yoshikawa, 2013; Yoshikawa et al., 2013; Yoshikawa, Weiland, & Brooks-Gunn, 2016) , suggesting that this may be an important indicator for increasing quality broadly and achieving greater child growth and better outcomes.
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From page 117... ...
. Strong Family Engagement The divestment that contributes to the opportunity gap for young people is a symptom of a system that does not always reflect the lived experiences and realities of families, which results in policies and practices that exacerbate inequities.
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From page 118... ...
, the Head Start model has long been an exemplar of family engagement through efforts to promote parent leadership and advocacy and positive influences that parents can have on child development, including parenting behaviors, economic security, and psychological well-being (Yoshikawa et al., 2013)
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From page 119... ...
Learn about each family's unique background. When these principles are put into practice, family engagement exists as a dynamic, ever-evolving set of strategies for best supporting families in their unique contexts (Wintrop et al., 2021)
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From page 120... ...
Thus a significant concern arising from the pandemic is the reversal or stagnation of any progress made in access to and equity in preschool, as is documented in the areas of access and funding in the most recent report on state preschool programs. That report shows that the pandemic erased a decade of progress in preschool enrollment in state-funded preschool programs, preschool special education, and Head Start (Friedman-Krauss et al., 2021)
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From page 121... ...
None of the major publicly funded ECE programs have sufficient funding to serve all eligible children, and families with lower incomes are less likely to enroll their children in publicly funded child care, pre-K, or Head Start. Many of the policy decisions about funding levels, quality standards, and eligibility for public assistance stem from U.S.
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From page 122... ...
In addition, certain populations are less likely to access publicly funded ECE programs. Quality frameworks may sometimes be narrowly focused on standards that neglect issues and lived experiences that, uniquely or disproportionately, tend to affect children from historically marginalized communities, including Black, Latino, Asian, and Native American children; children with disabilities; children who speak a language other than English at home; immigrant children; and children from low-income communities.
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From page 123... ...
. Getting ready for kindergarten: Children's progress during Head Start -- FACES 2009 Child Outcomes Report.
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. States of Head Start.
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From page 125... ...
Early Head Start–child care part nerships: Spotlighting early successes across America. Bipartisan Policy Center.
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From page 126... ...
. Policy recom mendations to growth EHS-CCP in states: Building supply, enhancing quality, and ad vancing equity: The early Head Start-child care partnership series.
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From page 127... ...
. Teacher–child relational conflict in Head Start: Explor ing the roles of child behaviour, teacher stress, and bias, and classroom environment.
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From page 128... ...
. Supporting Mexican American immigrant students on the border: A case study of culturally responsive leadership in a dual language elemen tary school.
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From page 129... ...
. Evidence of support for dual language learners in a study of bilingual staffing patterns using the Classroom Assessment of Supports for Emergent Bilingual Acquisition (CASEBA)
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From page 130... ...
. The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children.
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From page 131... ...
. Unequal neighborhood availability of Head Start: Explor ing patterns in the data.
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From page 132... ...
. Reducing inequality through dynamic complementar ity: Evidence from Head Start and public school spending. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 11(4)
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From page 133... ...
. Head Start since the war on poverty: Taking on new challenges to address persistent school readiness gaps.
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From page 134... ...
. Does Head Start improve children's life chances?
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From page 135... ...
. Building a universal preschool system around Head Start.
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From page 136... ...
. Impact of North Carolina's early child hood initiatives on special education placements in third grade.
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From page 137... ...
. Access to high quality early care and education: Readiness and opportunity gaps in America.
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From page 138... ...
. Dos métodos: Two classroom language models in Head Start: Strengthening the diversity and quality of the early care and education workforce paper series.
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From page 139... ...
. Third grade follow-up to the Head Start impact study: Final report.
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Child Development, 88(5)
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From page 141... ...
. The long-term impact of the Head Start program: Economic analysis.
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From page 142... ...
. Supporting Spanish-English DLLs in Head Start: Peer language match, instructional language match, and emotional support as predictors of approaches to learning and social skills.
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From page 143... ...
. Synthesis of preschool dosage: How quantity, quality, and content impact child outcomes.
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From page 144... ...
. Social and emotional functioning of children with learning disabilities: Does special education placement make a difference?
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From page 145... ...
. Head Start FACES: Longitudinal findings on program performance: Third progress report.
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