Advancing Antiracism, Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in STEMM Organizations Beyond Broadening Participation (2023) / Chapter Skim
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2 The Historical and Contemporary Context for Structural, Systemic, and Institutional Racism in the United States
2 The Historical and Contemporary Context for Structural, Systemic, and Institutional Racism in the United States
Pages 33-64
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From page 33... ...
The chapter then examines how the origins of race and racism came to be established at the inception of the United States. These racist belief systems created a false racial hierarchy under which non-Hispanic White people are believed to be superior, and Black people, Indigenous people, and systematically minoritized racial and ethnic people are considered inferior.
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From page 34... ...
emerged as a critical higher educational resource when higher educational opportunities were severely limited for minoritized people. The committee found that even though MSIs on average have continually faced significant underfunding, they have advanced representation by helping many minoritized students obtain STEMM degrees.
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. The current chapter focuses on each of these macro-level forms of racism together and how they impede STEMM careers for minoritized racial and ethnic people.
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. Racism directed at minoritized people, including Latine individuals, also dates back to the founding of the United States (Carrigan and Webb, 2003; Jung et al., 2011)
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In addition to spanning time, this section examines multiple sectors of society in which racism was codified, including education, housing, employment, criminal justice, and health. Across these sectors, the committee finds that the codification of racism restricted how Black people, Indigenous people, and other minoritized people were allowed to live, whether and where they were allowed to go to school, other educational opportunities they had access to, the careers they could pursue, the wealth they could accumulate and pass on to their children, and other aspects of everyday life that underlie entry and accessibility into STEMM educational and professional spaces.
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Over time, many states and localities beyond the South also adopted Jim Crow-inspired restrictions on the social interaction of Black and White individuals. Jim Crow laws seemingly violated the Civil Rights Act of 1875, but in 1896, in Plessy vs.
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Jim Crow laws lasted well into the 1960s and were only dismantled as a result of the civil rights movement. But the effort to dismantle Jim Crow was widely resisted, and the legacy of that resistance remains impactful even now.
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The Jim Crow era was finally ended through civil rights struggle, but many of its damaging consequences remain. UNEQUAL EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES Jim Crow laws also created segregated education and educational opportunities on the basis of race.
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. In the decades before the civil rights era, constrained educational opportunities were not limited solely by Jim Crow laws to Southern schools and were not imposed only on Black students.
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A survey of historically Black colleges in 1945 found that 45 percent of institutions enrolled fewer than 250 students, and 92 percent of the institutions had enrollment of less than 1,000 students (Jenkins, 1946)
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Studies have shown that Black students and Latine students are less likely to graduate from college than White students (Shapiro et al., 2017)
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. These two programs formally institutionalized redlining in real estate and banking, which had the effect of relegating Black Americans, as well as other systematically minoritized racial and ethnic people, to disadvantaged neighborhoods, which had the further effect of preventing them from owning homes and building generational wealth (Rothstein, 2018)
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Today, more than 50 years after passage of the Fair Housing Act, neighborhood segregation persists for Black people, Indigenous people, Latine people, and Asian American people and imposes unfair burdens on people from those communities even when they have the same income or education levels as people from predominantly White neighborhoods (Frey, 2021)
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. As the authors of this study conclude, "With lower family wealth and racial discrimination in the job market, Black students are far more likely than White students to experience negative financial events after graduating -- including loan default, higher interest rate payments, and higher graduate school debt balances." According to an analysis by the Education Data Initiative, Black college graduates owe an average of $25,000 more in student load debt than White college graduates (Hanson, 2022)
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. The policies enacted as part of the New Deal, for example, reserved most of these benefits for White workers while restricting and excluding minoritized people by exempting many domestic, agricultural, and service occupations from the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, actions that helped institutionalize and validate racial disparities in economic wellbeing (The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, 2011; Linder, 1986)
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. Live-in domestic service workers, babysitters, and companions for older persons -- all occupations in which minoritized people are disproportionately represented -- also remain excluded from many Fair Labor Standards Act protections (U.S.
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. CONCLUSION 2-1: The history of systemic racism in the United States, including both written laws and policies and a culture of practices and be liefs, has harmed Black people, Indigenous people, Latine, Asian American, and other people from minoritized racial and ethnic groups that continue to this day.
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When forming recommendations, the committee was mindful to not recreate the same set of recommendations, but rather develop novel recommendations pertaining to MSIs. Historically Black Colleges and Universities The statistics reviewed in the upcoming section draw heavily from data within the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
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. As noted above, HBCUs have been chronically underfunded by both federal and state governments, despite the pivotal role they play in advancing representation of historically racialized and minoritized people in STEMM.
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The authors of this study concluded that "because HBCUs are mission-driven to broaden college opportunities for Black students, many of whom have limited financial resources, these colleges and universities cannot increase costs to offset public divestments in higher education. Furthermore, they cannot grow their endowments overnight.
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The NSF states TCUP "supports tribal colleges and universities, Alaska Native-serving institutions, and Native Hawaiian-serving institutions to promote STEM research and education to increase the number of Native Americans in STEM careers" (NSF, n.d.a)
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In ad dition, predominately White institutions should seek sustainable partner ships with all MSIs (HBCUs, TCUs, Hispanic serving institutions, and Asian American Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions)
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. With fewer Black people, Indigenous people, and other systematically minoritized racial and ethnic people able to enter STEMM in years past, there are fewer role models and smaller communities of support for entrants (see Chapters 4 and 5 for more about the experiences of minoritized people)
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. Black students in U.S.
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. Selective bias: Asian Americans, test scores, and holistic admission.
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. Neighborhood segregation persists for Black, Latino or Hispanic, and Asian Americans.
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. Historically Black colleges and universities: A reference handbook.
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. Farm workers and the fair labor standards act: Racial discrimination in the new deal.
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. Historically Black Colleges and Universities.
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Bill and World War II on the educational outcomes of Black Americans. https://www.
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. Asian American and Native American Pacific Islander Serving Institutions.
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. The price of a science PhD: Varia tions in student debt levels across disciplines and race/ethnicity.
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