The Role of Seafood Consumption in Child Growth and Development (2024) / Chapter Skim
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4 Dietary Intake and Nutrient Composition of Seafood
4 Dietary Intake and Nutrient Composition of Seafood
Pages 89-136
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From page 89... ...
Finally, this chapter discusses various facets of diversity, equity, and inclusion that could be associated with intake of nutrients from seafood. NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF SEAFOOD Nutrients and Dietary Components of Public Health Concern Inadequate intake of nutrient-dense foods and beverages leads to underconsumption of some nutrients and dietary components.
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From page 90... ...
Vitamin D3 occurs naturally in a few food sources, which include fatty fish, fish liver oil, and egg yolk (Benedik, 2022)
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. Calcium absorption may be reduced by insufficient dietary protein intake and low vitamin D status, both of which are provided by fatty fish.
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. Dietary Fiber Dietary fiber includes soluble fiber, which supports glucose control and the lowering of blood cholesterol levels.
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Nutrient composition of seafood varies considerably among species obtained from marine and inland environments as well as from wild harvest and aquaculture sources. In addition to being a source of protein, fish and other seafood are a source of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids of the omega-3 series (n-3 LCPUFA)
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and Canadian populations (Table 4-2, Table 4-3, and Figure 4-1) , replacing other animal protein sources with seafood could be expected to lead to higher nutrient intake while not reducing total protein intake.
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. Aquaculture is the source of about 50 percent of seafood consumed globally and Atlantic salmon is a fatty fish and a rich source of n-3 LCPUFAs.
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. Factors that affect dietary intake of Se include geographic origin of the food and the overall meat and seafood content of the diet.
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(2021) used a controlled, randomized crossover study design, where participants assigned to the experimental group consumed lean seafood in accordance with the Norwegian dietary guidance and restricted intake of milk and dairy to measure urinary iodine concentrations.
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(2023) found 83 percent of pregnant women were below the EAR/AI for choline when diet and supplements were included.
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For instance, fatty fish such as Atlantic, farmed salmon contributes 12.4 g total fat per 100 g, only 2.4 g of which are saturated fat; whereas cooked, unbreaded farmed catfish provides 7.2 g total fat per PREPUBLICATION COPY: UNCORRECTED PROOFS
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From page 100... ...
. EPA and DHA intake reflect the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids from seafood with the largest amounts contained in Atlantic farmed and wild-caught salmon (1.5 and 1.4 g/100 g and 1.7 and 1.4 g/100 g, respectively)
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From page 101... ...
However, given the RDA for iodine of 220 µg/day for pregnant women and 290 µg/day for lactating women (IOM, 2001) , even daily consumption of the most frequently consumed seafood types -- shrimp at 15 µg iodine/100 g, canned salmon at 15 µg/100 g, canned tuna 9.4 µg/100 g -- are not likely to achieve the RDA for iodine.
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102 THE ROLE OF SEAFOOD IN CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT TABLE 4-1 Selected Nutrients in Seafood, by Seafood Type, United States PREPUBLICATION COPY: UNCORRECTED PROOFS
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104 THE ROLE OF SEAFOOD IN CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT TABLE 4-2 Iodine Content by Protein Source, United States a Haddock, raw; b Smelt, dried (Alaska Native) ; c Lobster, northern, cooked, moist heat; d Cod, baked; e Oyster, eastern, wild, cooked, moist heat; f Fish sticks or patty, frozen, oven-cooked; g Clam mixed species, canned, drained solids; h Pollock, Alaska, raw; i Tuna, fresh, bluefin, cooked, dry heat; j Swordfish, raw; k Salmon, pink, canned, drained solids; l Shrimp.
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TABLE 4-3 Comparison of Nutrient Density Between Selected Seafood Choices and Other High-Quality Protein Sources NOTES: * For seafood sources, the portion sizes represent the 2014 EPA-FDA Advice about Eating Fish for Those Who Might Become Pregnant, Are Pregnant, or Breastfeeding, and Children and 2020-2025 DGA recommendations.
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From page 106... ...
5 For adult women of childbearing age, the DGA recommends at least 8 oz of seafood per week. Pregnant or lactating women are encouraged to eat at least 8 oz and up to 12 oz of seafood per week, choosing varieties that are lower in methylmercury (USDA/HHS, 2020)
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. Food insecurity among non-Hispanic whites was associated with lower scores for total protein foods, including seafood.
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This study also found that a dietary transition away from traditional foods has resulted in a decrease in diet quality among Alaskan Native populations. Seafood Contribution to Protein Intake by Race and Ethnicity Among Women of Childbearing Age To identify the contribution of seafood to protein intake across racial and ethnic groups the committee commissioned an analysis of data from NHANES 2011−2020, as detailed in Chapter 3.
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From page 109... ...
Among women who reportedly eating at least some seafood in the prior 30 days, seafood contributed 17.4 g/day of protein and 4.6 g/day of high n-3 LCPUFAs. Women classified as seafood consumers had higher total protein intakes than nonconsumers (153.1 vs.
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b Less than 1.3 2,736 138.8 110.8 13.1 10.1 3.0 0.9 10.0 37.3 1.3–4.99 3,604 146.8 111.1 13.4 9.9 3.4 0.9 10.8 36.5 >5 1,015 148.1 106.5 14.3 9.6 4.4 1.1 11.7 37.4 Seafood Consumption in the Previous 30 Days from FFQc None 1,878 120.9 92.1 2.3 1.9 0.5 0.5 2.9 6.1 Some 5,473 153.1 116.3 17.4 12.7 4.6 4.6 14.5 40.0 NOTE: Usual seafood consumption modeled using 24-hour recall data. FFQ = food frequency questionnaire; IPR = income-to-poverty ratio.
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DIETARY INTAKE AND NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF SEAFOOD 111 b Income-to-poverty ratio. c Seafood consumers and nonconsumers defined as any/no intake of seafood in the previous 30 days in the food frequency questionnaire.
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From page 112... ...
Individuals at the 95th percentile consume 27.3 g/day of protein from seafood, approximately 25 percent of the daily total protein intake. Children consumed more seafood with increasing age, and boys had higher protein intake from seafood compared with girls, nonetheless, the proportion of protein intake from seafood was less than 25 percent in all age groups.
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From page 113... ...
reviewed the benefits and potential risks associated with the consumption of fish and shellfish by children and concluded that despite the nutritional benefits, children in the United States eat relatively small amounts of fish and shellfish compared with other protein sources. The authors noted that evidence-based expert guidance, such as the DGA, advise that seafood should have a larger place in the American diet.
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Source of Protein Total Protein from Seafood (g/day) Total Total Protein Total Total Total Protein from Meat, Protein Protein Protein Foods Poultry, and from from from N (g/day)
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c Seafood consumers and nonconsumers defined as any/no intake of seafood in the previous 30 days in the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)
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SOURCE: DGAC, 2020. Seafood Contribution to EPA and DHA Intake Among Women of Childbearing Age and Children and Adolescents To understand the contribution of seafood to daily intake of EPA and DHA, the committee compared intake of these n-3 LCPUFAs for seafood consumers and seafood nonconsumers.
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From page 117... ...
Intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and unsaturated fat were similar between seafood consumers and nonconsumers, but intakes of n-3 LCPUFA, EPA, and DHA among seafood nonconsumers were 33 percent, 7 percent, and almost 50 percent lower, respectively, compared to intake among seafood consumers.
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From page 118... ...
Overall 7,355 68.2 24.5 43.8 57 16 43 0.014 0.047 0.134 Age Group (years) 16–25 2,465 66.4 24.3 42.1 50 16 36 0.013 0.041 0.118 25–40 2,918 70.2 25.1 45.3 61 17 46 0.016 0.050 0.143 41–50 1,972 67.1 23.8 43.3 59 16 46 0.015 0.049 0.136 Race/Ethnicity Hispanic 1,927 66.9 23.9 43.1 60 16 45 0.016 0.050 0.138 Non-Hispanic Asian 911 60.9 20.9 39.9 80 22 72 0.019 0.066 0.186 Non-Hispanic White 1,812 71.3 24.7 46.6 69 20 52 0.019 0.058 0.158 Non-Hispanic Black 2,354 68.8 25.1 43.8 51 15 37 0.013 0.042 0.117 Other 351 67.7 24.4 43.2 55 16 40 0.014 0.046 0.127 Income-to-Poverty Ratio Less than 1.3 2,724 65.6 23.7 41.8 54 16 41 0.013 0.044 0.129 1.3–4.99 3,613 68.8 24.7 44.1 59 16 45 0.015 0.049 0.139 ≥ 5.0 1,018 70.6 25.1 45.7 56 17 41 0.015 0.046 0.128 Seafood Consumption Status Nonconsumer of seafood 1,878 67.8 24.5 43.3 36 11 24 0.010 0.030 0.082 Seafood consumer 5,473 68.4 24.5 43.9 64 18 49 0.019 0.054 0.145 NOTES: Seafood consumers and nonconsumers defined as any/no intake of seafood in the previous 30 days in the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)
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. Intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and unsaturated fat increased with increasing income, but n-3 LCPUFA intakes did not differ among income groups.
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Variables used to predict n-3, EPA, and DHA consumption included sex, age, race, income category, and seafood consumption in the FFQ; for other fatty acids, FFQ consumption was not included in the model. SOURCE: NHANES, 2011–2012 through 2017–March 2020.
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From page 121... ...
Women of childbearing age consumed an average 5.9 mg/day of EPA, 28.4 mg/day of DHA, and 34.3 mg/day of EPA+DHA. Pregnant women consumed approximately twice as much EPA, DHA, and EPA+DHA compared with lactating women.
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From page 122... ...
b 1–5 4.90 95.3 27.0 179.7 40.7 275.0 67.5 6–11 3.47 131.8 30.3 273.0 73.9 404.9 103.1 12–19 7.06 322.6 64.2 518.5 93.1 841.1 154.5 20–54 50.05 298.7 61.6 515.7 89.7 814.4 151.1 Pregnant 1.03 95.7 25.1 160.0 53.2 255.8 75.2 Lactating 1.62 358.1 108.2 651.1 195.6 1009.2 300.8 a 17.1% of the total surveyed male population are seafood consumers. b 17.9% of the total surveyed male population are seafood consumers.
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From page 123... ...
b 1–5 6.00 4.0 0.4 18.8 1.5 22.8 1.7 6–11 6.85 5.6 0.4 19.8 1.5 25.4 1.8 12–19 8.57 7.6 0.6 25.1 1.5 32.7 1.8 20–54 46.46 5.9 0.2 28.4 1.3 34.3 1.5 Pregnant 1.18 11.8 3.5 51.5 15.7 63.3 19.0 Lactating 1.58 5.9 0.8 26.6 3.8 32.5 4.4 a 82.9% of the total surveyed male population are seafood consumers. b 82.1% of the total surveyed male population are seafood consumers.
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Only small differences were observed in intake of any micronutrient between seafood consumers and nonconsumers.
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16–25 2,465 94.7 8.9 240.6 12.1 338.2 4.0 252.7 2,056.0 855.0 3.7 25–40 2,918 102.4 9.8 282.0 13.0 362.4 4.1 294.7 2,371.3 904.9 4.0 41–50 1,972 97.4 9.4 278.5 12.4 350.9 3.9 287.0 2,355.0 867.1 3.9 Race/Ethnicity Hispanic 1,927 102.0 9.7 275.8 13.1 359.2 4.1 292.9 2,319.6 903.6 4.1 Non-Hispanic 911 105.7 9.3 290.8 12.9 402.4 3.8 297.3 2,443.2 788.5 4.2 Asian Non-Hispanic 1,812 99.9 8.7 237.9 12.0 313.0 3.8 271.3 2,080.4 767.9 3.4 White Non-Hispanic 2,354 96.5 9.5 271.6 12.5 354.1 4.1 276.6 2,291.3 910.2 3.9 Black Other 351 95.7 8.9 258.5 12.0 333.9 4.2 263.2 2,151.5 849.2 3.5 Income-to-Poverty Ratio Less than 1.3 2,724 96.5 9.0 246.2 12.3 335.7 3.9 267.0 2,136.8 847.1 3.7 1.3–4.99 3,613 99.2 9.4 268.6 12.5 351.3 4.0 284.4 2,274.1 880.6 3.9 ≥ 5.0 1,018 100.3 10.0 301.2 13.2 376.9 4.2 286.9 2,464.0 936.9 3.9 Seafood Consumption Status Nonconsumer of 1,878 97.9 9.4 264.1 12.5 350.2 4.0 275.8 2,240.8 881.4 3.8 seafood Seafood consumer 5,473 98.9 9.4 270.0 12.6 352.5 4.0 281.4 2,283.5 878.6 3.9 NOTES: Seafood consumers and nonconsumers defined as any/no intake of seafood in the previous 30 days in the food frequency questionnaire. Excludes intake of dietary supplements.
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From page 126... ...
Only small differences were observed in nutrient intake of any micronutrient between seafood consumers and nonconsumers.
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2–5 1,567 83.9 9.1 224.8 12.5 325.9 4.7 4.7 2,166.3 1,054.0 6.8 6–11 2,344 106.1 11.1 258.6 15.8 405.0 5.4 5.4 2,367.5 1,157.3 6.4 12–19 2,739 113.3 11.1 260.0 15.3 390.1 5.2 5.2 2,321.7 1,061.6 4.9 Females (years) 2–5 1,584 68.7 7.4 195.5 10.4 280.5 3.7 3.7 1,855.9 893.0 5.6 6–11 2,299 87.9 9.1 225.2 13.3 350.8 4.3 4.3 2,037.3 981.6 5.2 12–19 2,644 94.2 9.2 225.6 12.9 337.4 4.1 4.1 1,994.9 896.7 4.0 Race/Ethnicity Hispanic 3,912 95.3 9.8 237.8 14.0 365.6 4.7 4.7 2,201.0 1,024.7 5.6 Non-Hispanic Asian 1,196 102.3 9.8 249.6 13.6 385.9 4.4 4.4 2,243.4 951.0 5.7 Non-Hispanic White 3,430 92.9 8.9 213.1 13.1 329.7 4.1 4.1 1,995.2 842.9 4.3 Non-Hispanic Black 3,688 96.4 10.0 240.9 13.8 357.5 4.8 4.7 2,157.5 1,055.4 5.4 Other 951 94.0 9.6 229.4 13.4 342.4 4.6 4.6 2,074.6 987.9 5.2 Income-to-Poverty Ratio Less than 1.3 5,690 94.7 9.6 224.8 13.7 351.7 4.7 4.7 2,098.5 977.2 5.3 1.3–4.99 6,195 95.4 9.7 236.5 13.6 353.4 4.6 4.6 2,135.9 1,004.4 5.1 ≥ 5.0 1,292 99.8 10.1 257.8 14.1 374.5 4.7 4.7 2,278.7 1,101.2 5.6 Seafood Intake Status Nonconsumer of seafood 5,372 95.7 9.8 235.7 13.7 355.8 4.7 4.7 2,142.6 1,012.9 5.3 Seafood consumer 7,799 95.9 9.7 236.3 13.7 356.2 4.6 4.6 2,146.0 1,007.2 5.3 NOTE: Seafood consumers and nonconsumers defined as any/no intake of seafood in the previous 30 days in the food frequency questionnaire (FFQ)
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From page 128... ...
Household income was not associated with intake levels of EPA and DHA. Both women of childbearing age and children and adolescents classified as seafood consumers were 40.8 and 25.6 percent, respectively, of the NHANES sample population.
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From page 129... ...
Taken together, the committee concludes that nutrient intakes from seafood by women of childbearing age and children are low. RESEARCH GAPS • Data are needed on levels of nutrient intake by seafood consumers who meet current seafood intake recommendations compared to nonconsumers and low consumers of seafood.
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From page 130... ...
2004. Replacement of dietary fish oil with increasing levels of linseed oil: Modification of flesh fatty acid compositions in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
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2010. Fats and fatty acids in human nutrition.
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2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc.
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2019. Dietary Reference Intakes for sodium and potassium.
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2018. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance - A review.
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American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 72(1 Suppl)
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