Methods for Developing Spacecraft Water Exposure Guidelines (2000) / Chapter Skim
Currently Skimming:
2 Sources, Treatment, and Monitoring of Spacecraft Water Contaminants
2 Sources, Treatment, and Monitoring of Spacecraft Water Contaminants
Pages 14-56
The Chapter Skim interface presents what we've algorithmically identified as the most significant single chunk of text within every page in the chapter.
Select key terms on the right to highlight them within pages of the chapter.
From page 14... ...
The prohibitive cost of transporting the large amounts of water needed to support the crew and the impracticality of generating water from fuel cells for missions of this length have led to the requirement that the ISS environmental control and life support system (ECESS) recycle wastewater to provide water of acceptable quality for potable and personal hygiene use and for oxygen generation.
|
From page 15... ...
The life support system for the TSS will be incorporated in several phases of the assembly sequence. Initially, potable water will be produced from humidity condensate by multifiltration treatment by a Russian assembly housed In the Russian service module.
|
From page 16... ...
Total water consumption of a cosmonaut was estimated at approximately 9 Ib or 4.1 liters per day (~/~. During the first phase of construction, the Russian service module win reclaim drinking water only from humidity condensate; during the second phase, the service module and the LSM win regenerate potable water from urine.
|
From page 17... ...
85% of the crew water will be regenerated during phase 2, whereas only 43% during phase 1. CDRS, carbon dioxide reduction system; LSM, life support module; NA, not applicable; SM, service module; WR~UM, updated system for water reclamation from urine Source: Modified from Samsonov et al.
|
From page 18... ...
Standards for water quality are described in Appendix A and in other NASA documents (e.g., the International Space Station Flight Crew integration Standard, SSP 50005, Rev B
|
From page 19... ...
at NASA's MarshaD Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, and the Early Human Testing Initiative (renamed the Lunar-Mars Life Support Test Project (LMESTP)
|
From page 20... ...
_ T lunneL ~ Unne L ~ Anne distillate Processor ~ Collechor · _ I Stern _ e ~ equipment off gas I I -- - ' ~ l it-—~~ humidity condensate Microwave Oven Exerase L ' ~`7namser _ ~ _ ~ _ ~ _ ~ FIGURE 2-1 The integrated water recovery system used in Stage 9 of the Marshall WRT. CHeCS, crew health-care system; PCWQM, process-control water-quality monitor; VRA, volatile removal assembly.
|
From page 21... ...
Several distillation technologies have been used in developing the water reclamation system for the space station (including reverse osmosis, thermally integrated membrane evaporation (TIMES) , or vapor compression distillation)
|
From page 22... ...
(1992~. Vapor compression distillation also was used to treat urine in the closed-chamber tests at the Johnson Space Center.
|
From page 23... ...
The remainder of this section constitutes descriptions of over environmental contributors to condensate aboard spacecraft. Condensate Sample Results Wafer Recovery leaf The water recovery system of the MarshaD Space Flight Center WRT includes a facility that contains a shower, handwash, microwave oven, urine collection and pretreatment unit, condensing heat exchanger, and exercise equipment.
|
From page 24... ...
1994~. The first in-flight humidity condensate samples were collected on two shuttle missions, STS~5 and STOW, in 1992; additional samples were collected from ST~68 and from the Mir.
|
From page 25... ...
Volatile Organic Compounds Acetonea 2-Butanone Cyclohexanone Methylene chloride 4-Methyl-2-pentanone Tetrahydrofuran Toluene Extractable Organic Compounds Acetophenone 56.3 2-Acetylfuran 1.1 Benzaldehyde 3.8 Benzoic acid 29.9 Benzothiazole 32.7 Benzyl alcohol 21.1 Benzylbutyl phthlate 4.9 Benzyl salicylate 1.4 Bis-2-ethylhexyl adipate 2.1 Bis-2-ethylhexyl phthalate 13.2 2-Butoxyethanola 3533.8 2-(2-Butoxyethoxy) ethanol 136.6 2-(2-Butoxyethoxy)
|
From page 26... ...
Tributyl phosphatea 2.2 Tricosane 4.0 Triethylamine 2.7 Triethylene glycol methacrylate 12.3 Triethyl phosphate 6.4 2,2,4-Trimethyl-1,3-pentanediola 39 2,2,4-Trimethyl-1,3-pentanediol 0.4 diisobutyrate 6.6 0.4 89.7 6.2 83.0 2.1 0.6 55.9 23.8 65.5 1.3 0.9 50.1 1.9 3.0 427.5 43.6 9.3 12.9 6.5 0.8 347.5 7.3 6.1 5.9 3.4 19.7 6.5 61.0 2.6 6.1 3.1 Triphenyl phosphate Tripropylene glycol monomethyl ether Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate Undecanoic acid 2-Undecanone Valeraldehyde y-Valerolactone Vanillin Alcohols 1-Butanola Ethanola Methanola 1-Propanola 2-Propanola Ethylene glycola Propylene glycola Aldehvdes Formaldehydea Acetatea Butyrate Formatea Lactate Propionateb Amines T rimethy la mine Nonvolatile Compounds Urea Total organic carbon 269.2 2.2 27.7 1.7 4.6 268.8 21.7 2.0 109 2.6 7.3 0.7 1.8 1.8 1.3 1480 27,458 39,498 580 24,670 12,490 8814 12,192 9.21 0.21 8.84 0.183 0.32 ND 0.43 45,400 to 64,500 dContaminant present in four of four samples collected.
|
From page 27... ...
SO~RC~$ DR~A I, AND 410~/~OR/WG OF COW~AM/WAN~S TABLE 24 Organic Compounds Found In the Humidity Condensate Samples from Me Shuttle Cabin 27 Concentration, ,ug/L Minimum Compound Maximum Volatile Organic Compounds Acetaldehyde <10 19.8 Acetone 12.6 68 2-Heptanone 0.73 7.26 4-Heptanone ND 6.03 Methylene chloride 1.94 1,380 Tetrachloroethane 2.67 10.60 Toluene <0.25 1.4 Semivolatile Organic Compounds Acetophenone 22 108 2-~2-Butoxyethoxy~ethanol 2,700 3,400 3-tert-But~rlphenol 36 193 Diethyl phthalate 480 2,200 N,N-Diethyl-m-toluamide 126 245 Octanoic acid 1,500 1,800 Phenol 35 107 1,3,5,Triazine-2,4,6~1H,3H,5H) trione-1,3,5-tri-2-propenyl 480 2,300 Alcohols Benzylalcohol 59,000 369,000 Ethanol 6,600 126,000 Methanol 1,400 7,400 2-Propanol 1,900 43,300 Glycols Propylene glycol 29,000 72,000 Organic Acids Acetic acids 2,300 28,520 Butyric acid 280 900 Formic acids 8,900 16,900 Propionic acid 2,600 5,020 Aldehydes Formaldehyde 3,300 10,400 Representative results from the characterization of cabin humidity concentrations from nine samples from two shuttle missions.
|
From page 28... ...
1995~. A discussion of inorganic contaminants found in humidity condensates from shuttle missions are presented later in this chapter, in conjunction with analyses of regenerated water.
|
From page 29... ...
Moreover, about 60 sem~volatile compounds identified in the shuttle condensate were not found in Mir condensate, and about 10 compounds were found only in the Mir samples. Volatile organic compounds common to the Mir and shuttle samples included acetone, 2-butanone, and methylene chloride.
|
From page 30... ...
A discussion of the inorganic contaminants found in humidity condensates from Mir are presented later in this chapter, in conjunction with analyses of regenerated water. Environmental Contributors to Spacecraft Humidity Condensate /~rc/w~re Off-Gassing Most nonmetallic materials continuously release trace amounts of a wide variety of gases, either through breakdown and subsequent volatilization of the original material or via gradual escape of gases that are trapped in the materials during their manufacture or cleaning.
|
From page 31... ...
Moreover, the potential effects of m~crogravity on component processes, such as air-fluid separators, vapor compression distiBation, catalytic oxidation, and urine pretrea~anent with highly corrosive TABLE 2-5 Ersatz Animal Condensate Composition Concentration, ,ug/ L 300 10,100 590,000 Compound Acetaldehyde Acetone Ammonium Benzoic acid Bis-2-ethylhexyl phthlate Ethylene glycol Nickel Phenol Phosphate 2-Propanol Protein Urea 850 70 14,000 600 50 17,000 11,500 6,080 1,170 During the ground-based tests, first in the water recovery tests at Marshall then at Johnson, the animal condensate ersatz solution was metered into the waste bus 24 fur/d at 0.33 lb/hr to simulate condensate input from the research animal holding facility on the space station. It is expected that about 7.92 lb/d would be generated as animal condensate.
|
From page 32... ...
James, Johnson Space Center, personal communication, fan.
|
From page 33... ...
Wash Water and Other Waste Streams Hygiene Water Defergenis A major contributor of complex chemicals to the waste stream is hygiene water, which will contain soap, residue from shaving, and chem
|
From page 34... ...
Chemic~/s from ~ersona///J/~giene Roughs Other personal hygiene items to be used on the ISS, such as shaving cream, toothpaste, and deodorant or antiperspirant, have yet to be standardized in the space-station program. However, some information on use of these products is available from ground-based test beds.
|
From page 35... ...
Biofilms and nonadherent microbial contamination were found in the heat exchangers after a 60-d closed-chamber study in the EMESTP (D.W. Koenig, Krug Life Sciences, personal communication, April 1997)
|
From page 36... ...
Finally, the multifiltration beds are designed to remove largemolecular-weight organic and ionic components before the water passes to the volatile removal assembly, which catalytically oxidizes the smaD-molecular-weight organic constituents. Incomplete processing at the multifiltration beds will overload the volatile removal assembly and catalyst with large-molecular-weight organic compounds, eventually producing incomplete products of oxidation.
|
From page 37... ...
Iodine and iodine species have been removed during recent space-shuttle missions by using an iodine removal and mineral injection system or by using activated carbon and ion exchange resins pumped between the shuttle water tank and the galley. Such procedures could become a medical operations requirement for ISS missions.
|
From page 38... ...
The ISS water-quality requirements table (see Appendix A, Table AM lists several inorganic compounds and the maximum concentrations to protect crew members from experiencing any potential toxic effects. The multifiltration beds in the Mir condensate processor assembly and the Unibed assembly proposed for the U.S.
|
From page 39... ...
MirHumidity Condensates and A~irRecIaimed Water As a part of water-processing systems development, and to help determine the quality of the raw source water from missions of Tong duration, humidity condensate samples and samples reclaimed from these condensates using the Mir condensate processors were collected from several shuttie-Mir missions, starting in March 1995 (named as Mir-~S, Mir-19, Mir-20, Mir-21, etc.~. The analysis of Mir-20 humidity condensate samples are presented in Table 2-7.
|
From page 40... ...
(1996, 1997, 1999~. Detailed inorganic analysis was not carried out on the reclaimed water from Mir-~S, Mir-19, and Mir-20 due to limited sample volume.
|
From page 41... ...
EMESTP 60-d Product Water Results of the inorganic analysis on the reclaimed water from the Johnson Space Center 60-d closed-chamber study (LMESTP Phase IlA) show most of the inorganics well below NASA limits.
|
From page 42... ...
EMESTP 60-d Product Water The 60-d Johnson Space Center chamber study, in which four humans used regenerated air and water, was intended to provide a typi
|
From page 43... ...
SO/JRC~$ ~R~A ~WE, AND A~OW/~OR/WC OF COW~A~/WAN~S TABLE 2-9 Organic Compounds ~n the Processed Water Samples from a Representative Mir Mission 43 Concentration, llg/L Minimum Maximum 110.7 27.9 1.4 3.4 6.8 41.8 48.5 1.9 1.9 49.6 2.7 9.6 5.6 0.3 1.2 11.7 6.2 0.1 1.49 1.9 1.3 1 2.3 41 2,447 63.4 3.2 75.1 24.6 5.8 50.85 4.6 3.5 113.4 27.4 5.6 Compound Benzothiazole Bis-2-ethylhexyl phthalate Di-n-butyl phthalate Diethyl ph~alate 2-Hydroxybenzothiazole 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole 2-Methylthiobenzothiazole Toluene Urethane Acetone N-Butylbenzenesulfonamide Carbon disulfide Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane Indole Phenol N-Phenyl-2-naphthylamine 1-Tetradecanol 2,2,4-Tr~methyl-1,3-pentanediol diisobutyrate Acetate Benzyl alcohol 2,4-Di-t-butylphenol Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane Trichloroethene Acetophenone Ethanol Formaldehyde 2-Phenylphenol Phenyl sulfone Tetramethylthiourea T r i s - 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l p h o s p h a t e Acetaldehyde Benzoic acid Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) 3-tert-Butrlphenol Caprolactam 1,4-Diacetylbenzene Frequencya 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1.6 0.4 0.1 0.1 1.1 8.8 2.2 0.8 0.4 8.89 0.5 5.2 0.8 0.1 0.9 0.2 1.8 0.1 0.131 0.9 0.9 1.8 0.1 160 22.4 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.9 50.85 4.6 3.5 113.4 27.4 5.6 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 l 1 1 1 1
|
From page 44... ...
N-Dimethylbenzylamine Dimethylcarbamyl chloride Dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane 2-Ethoxyethanol Ethylene glycol 2-Ethyl-1-hexanol 4-Ethylmorpholine 2-Heptanone 4-Hydroxy~methyl-2-pentanone Isophorone Methanol 3-Methyl-2-cyclohexen-1-one Methylene chloride Methyl~hydroxybenzoate 2-Methylpyrazine 1-Me~yl-2-pyrrolidinone Methyl sulfone sec-Phenethyl alcohol 2-Phenyl-2-propanol Phthalide 1-a-Terpineol Tetramethylsuccinonitrile Tetramethylurea Triethyl phosphate Triethylamine Urea 15.8 30.9 0.5 25 43.9 2.1 3.2 1.4 7.7 45,530 1.5 31.8 0.4 11.4 6.3 489 6.1 4.5 5.1 6.1 11.4 0.6 8.4 30.6 2.8 24.5 31.7 6 4.6 11.8 1.13 Total organic carbon 5,150 23,700 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 aFrequency of detection in six samples. Source: Pierre et al.
|
From page 45... ...
In general, the lessons learned in the 60-d chamber test in the areas of component functioning and the efficiency of contaminant removal systerns to potable-water quality win help NASA finetune the design and build a robust and dependable system for long space missions. Stage-1O WRT The Marshall Space Flight Center WRT Stage-10 was conducted for 128 ~ in a recipient mode of operation, in which reclaimed water was
|
From page 46... ...
Compound Iodoform Methyl sulfone Di-n-butyl phthalate Toluene 2-Ethyl-l-hexanol Formaldehyde Benzaldehyde 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone Benzyl alcohol Diiodomethane Diisopropyl adipate Dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane Acetate Bis-2-ethylhexyl phthalate 46 A/1~HODS FOR D~V~O~//VC SPA C~CMFF WA AIR EXPOSERS G~/D~/~S TABLE 2-10 Organic Contaminants In Processed Waters During the 60-d Johnson Space Center Chamber Study Concentration, ~g/L Minimum Maximum Frequencya 40 38 36 34 33 30 24 21 21 19 17 13 11 11 10 8 1.6 0.6 0.1 1.01 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.14 0.1 4-Hydroxy~methyl-2-pentanone 0.6 Methanol 101 4.8 54.5 2.3 9.53 12.4 13.8 0.8 7.4 7 1.8 0.9 1.7 3.97 1.7 3.4 233 1-Formylpiperidine 0.1 0.6 7 Squalene 0.9 3.9 6 Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane 0.1 0.2 5 Diethyl phthalate 0.2 0.4 5 Lactate 0.18 1.1 4 Oxalate 0.23 0.41 4 sec-Phenethyl alcohol 0.1 0.2 4 Acetone 4.64 6.3 3 Acetophenone 0.1 0.3 3 Benzothiazole 0.1 0.7 3 Pentacosane 0.3 1.2 3 Phenol 0.7 1 3 2-~2-Butoxyethoxy~ethanol 0.4 0.8 2 2-Butoxythanol 3.1 3.2 2 2-Ethylhexanoic acid 1.7 2.1 2 Monomethyl phthalate 4.8 4.8 2 N,N-Dimethylbenzylamine 0.6 0.6 2 Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane 0.4 0.6 2 Octanoic acid 2.6 2.9 2 Tris-2-chloroethyl phosphate 0.9 1.5 2 Benzylbutyl phthalate 3.6 3.6 1
|
From page 47... ...
The water recovery system processed pretreated urine flush water; an ersatz sample of CHeCS waste; ersatz animal condensate; humidity condensate; ersatz equipment off-gas; ersatz fuel cell water; and wet shave, personal hygiene, and oral hyg~ene water. The results in general indicated no accumulation of contaminants in the product water (Carter 1997~.
|
From page 48... ...
, the results gathered so far from ISS simulated wastewater streams and in-flight raw and processed water samples indicate that the organic compounds that are present are vastly different from the list of target compounds developed by EPA for public drinking water. MONITORING WATER CONTAMINANTS Conductivity is the only process control monitoring currently done aboard Mir in its condensate processor system.
|
From page 49... ...
Even though organic and inorganic constituents win be removed by the series of granular activated-carbon and ion-exchange beds, and low-molecular-weight compounds will undergo catalytic oxidation at the volatile removal assembly, trace contaminants could produce io
|
From page 50... ...
Complete characterizations of product water, particularly its organic constituents, wiD require off-line analyses, which in turn require that hardware and analytical methods be developed for use in space. Progress toward that goal was provided by the 60-d test of the EMESTP in a human-rated regenerative life support chamber at Johnson Space Center (Meyers et al.
|
From page 51... ...
GEE Specification, International Space Station, Revision Basic, June 1999, NASA Johnson Space Center (Draft) Document Number SSP 50470.
|
From page 52... ...
In addition, the materials used in the Mir modules might not be the same as those planned for the ISS, and Mir information is 7-10 years old. Results from a ground-based, human-rated chamber facility at Johnson Space Center, which had integrated systems for air revitalization and water recovery, provided useful supplements for m~crogravity tests from a systems operations point of view.
|
From page 53... ...
Phase III Integrated Water Recovery Testing at MSFC: International Space Station Recipient Mode Test Results and Lessons Learned. SAE Technical Paper Series no.
|
From page 54... ...
Hutchens.1995. Phase III Integrated Water Recovery Testing at MSFC: International Space Station Configuration Test Results and Lessons Learned.
|
From page 55... ...
1989. Chemical and Water Quality and Monitoring Requirements of Reclaimed Water for Space Station Freedom.
|
From page 56... ...
Paper presented at the Space Station Water Quality Conference, Lyndon B Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, July 1-2, 1986.
|
Key Terms
This material may be derived from roughly machine-read images, and so is provided only to facilitate research.
More
information on Chapter Skim is available.