Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States: Technology, Policy, and Societal Dimensions (2024)

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5 Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract for Deep Decarbonization ABSTRACT One of the greatest threats to a successful transition to a net-zero economy is failing to mobilize the participation and support of the people who call the United States home. In every corner of the nation, decarbonization efforts will ask households to buy and use new technologies; businesses and workers to transform energy systems; and institutions in the public and private sector to collaboratively imagine, plan for, and invest in clean energy futures. Furthermore, diverse communities will be asked to assent to and support new policies, programs, and infrastructure construction, and to adapt to the resulting changes to society, the economy, and the environment. Without full participation in these intertwined and interdependent activities, the United States may fall short of implementing decarbonization at the pace, scale, depth, and univer- sality necessary to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Public engagement is a crucial element of the social contract necessary to sustain the political will for decarbonization. It is needed to prepare and marshal individuals and communities to act; deliver tangible and meaningful benefits to all; and acknowledge, mitigate, and compensate for the disruptions, risks, losses, and added burdens many will experience. To participate in decision-making, people will need new knowledge, capabilities, opportunities, and resources. Industries and governments will need new methods to meaningfully engage publics, new skilled professionals to do this work, and robust research and educational programs to guide their efforts. Getting this work done in the coming decades is a daunting human challenge, but it is just as crucial as developing and implementing the technologies needed for deep decarbonization. Meeting this challenge will entail continuous and robust public engagement opportu- nities offered by governments, the energy and electricity industries, and civil society.1 1 Civil society is the composition of communities and organization not associated with government. Civil society organizations include schools, advocacy groups, churches, and cultural institutions (Ingram 2020), as well as labor unions and indigenous groups (Longley 2022). 244 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 244 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract Although many of the elements of recent policy initiatives create opportunities to engage and invest various publics in clean energy futures, the human challenge of decarbonization has received only a tiny fraction of the investment in federal and sub- national policy and private action. Inadequate public engagement curtails opportuni- ties to advance creative, place-based energy systems and their potential advantages for equitable decarbonization. Furthermore, public engagement literature shows that policies and reforms that reduce public engagement risk slowing transition processes. Without additional resources and determined strategies, current public engagement efforts risk exacerbating public resistance to the pace and scale of systemic change necessary for deep decarbonization. Table 5-2, at the end of the chapter, summarizes the committee’s recommendations that appear in this chapter to support innovative public engagement in decarbonization. INTRODUCTION The people of the United States are essential contributors to and participants in the decarbonization of the U.S. energy system. Without their active involvement and support, the nation will not achieve the policy, technology, and societal changes necessary to fashion a carbon neutral economy by 2050. To engage the public well is to build a strong social contract for the whole-of-society commitment necessary for deep and rapid decarbonization of the U.S. energy system. Unfortunately, in many parts of the country, the opposite is occurring: a growing number of people are feel- ing left out of decisions that are affecting the communities, places, and landscapes where they live and work—decisions that they see as having little to no local benefit. The number of communities placing significant new restrictions on actions required to achieve deep decarbonization is growing rapidly, especially in the deployment of renewable energy (Aidun et al. 2022; Lopez and Levine 2022a,b; Zullo 2023). These restrictions reflect the fact that the United States is not just an abstract territory or population: it is a land of urban and rural places—with associated histories, communi- ties, resources, and industries to which many people have considerable attachment and concern for risks from new kinds of energy projects. Effective response to public engagement concerns requires that public- and private- sector institutions and civil society establish new ways and capabilities to draw people into processes, including for deliberating the pathways and specific actions needed to achieve carbon neutrality. Only through such innovations will the diverse members of the public at large feel able to meaningfully contribute to and see themselves as a part of the decarbonization project and the decisions that shape future U.S. energy systems and the associated societal and economic futures (Devine-Wright 2011). 245 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 245 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S (See Chapter 2 for the equity dimensions of strengthening meaningful public en- gagement in deep decarbonization.) Furthermore, the nation needs to simultane- ously move forward with distributed-, community-, and utility-scale decarbonization projects that incorporate public engagement early and often. Without synergistic, innovative public engagement opportunities, the nation’s ability to achieve deep decarbonization may be put at risk. This chapter maps out the public engagement innovations required to facilitate a social contract for deep decarbonization, which go well beyond “social accep- tance” of technology. Robust public engagement practices are necessary to involve people in the setting of transition goals for and the design and implementation of the energy system transition. The committee’s first report introduced the joint goals of accelerating decarbonization and facilitating a just and equitable transi- tion, goals that are often considered to be in conflict. The tension between pace and process poses many real challenges for those implementing energy transition policy. However, this chapter emphasizes that failure to prioritize justice, equity, and a multi-faceted and multi-scalar2 approach to engagement will in fact slow de- carbonization and highlights the ways to make meaningful engagement processes more effective. The chapter begins with a summary of lessons and priority actions for public engage- ment innovation, followed by a brief assessment of progress toward the first report’s goals and recommendations. The bulk of the chapter consists of four sections that review public engagement theory and practice that could substantially enhance the ability of policy and energy institutions to involve U.S. publics in deep decarboniza- tion: (1) Strengthening Energy Democracy Through Inclusive Policy Dialogue; (2) Com- munity Energy, Energy Sovereignty, and Collective Benefits; (3) Meaningful Engage- ment in Siting and Permitting; and (4) Building the Nation’s Expertise in the Human Dimensions of Decarbonization. Box 5-1 summarizes key lessons from practice and scholarship that provide the framework for this chapter. Status of Prior Committee Recommendations Related to Public Engagement New decarbonization technologies and infrastructure programs will involve much of the U.S. public in extensive changes to the energy system. Furthermore, fairness and justice are essential to a net-zero energy future. The committee’s first report addressed the scale, fairness, and justice aspects of decarbonization and identified an important 2  Related to multiple scales, including individual, local, regional, and national. 246 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 246 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract BOX 5-1 CORE LESSONS ABOUT PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT • A coordinated and comprehensive transition to net zero will serve the public well. The sig- nificance and complexity of decarbonization requires all levels of government, the energy sector, and the media to provide the public with accurate depictions of decarbonization progress, risks being addressed, and benefits being provided. • People value being consulted no matter what the outcome. When processes are understood to be accessible, transparent, fair, and inclusive, actions to decarbonize the U.S. energy system will be more widely viewed as acceptable. • Trust can ultimately reduce time to achieve consensus about key decisions. While it takes time and effort to build such trust, the perceived legitimacy of the public process depends on trust and the character of the relationships among stakeholders. • The development of new energy infrastructure is fundamentally a social process. When planning and engagement occur early and often, attachment to places can be leveraged as a catalyst for technological processes. • Decarbonization processes will be slow in pace without appropriate public engagement op- portunities. While meaningful engagement does not guarantee consensus, its absence can increase opposition to project development. • Projects must deliver tangible or visible public benefits aligned with publicly identified priorities. Projects that provide tangible or visible public benefits have a greater likelihood of securing support from communities. • It is essential to be better equipped to learn as the transition progresses. This requires greater investment in knowledge of how transitions are affecting the public and investment in methods to estimate future impacts. set of broad policy goals to support an equitable transition (see Appendix C). Many as- pects of the first report’s recommendations explicitly and implicitly called for inclusive public engagement: • A White House–level Office of Equitable Energy Transitions; • A National Transition Corporation to ensure coordination and funding for ­assistance to communities and regions; • National laboratory support to subnational entities for planning and imple- mentation of net-zero transition; • Educational and training programs to train the net-zero workforce; • Ten regional centers to manage socioeconomic dimensions of the net-zero transition; • High-profile regional public dialogues and listening sessions to discuss ­decarbonization pathways and goals; 247 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 247 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S • Net-zero transition offices in each state capitol; • Local community block grants for planning; and • Opportunities to grow community-owned and planned energy systems. The report also recommended that the energy industry follow best practices in stake- holder engagement and suggested ways to overcome barriers to participation facing disadvantaged populations. Despite substantial changes in the federal policy landscape that heighten the importance of effective public engagement, growth in federal support of public engagement is not commensurate with the major energy investments made in recent legislation. Appendix I summarizes the committee’s evaluation of the implementation of the first report’s public engagement objectives in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (P.L. 117-58), the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) (P.L. 117-169), and other relevant federal actions. In summary, the committee finds recent legislation falls short of what is needed to empower the public to effectively participate in deep decarbon- ization. The outlier is the objective to “invest in community block grants that sup- port local transition planning, community-based action, and community-benefiting economic and technological change,” which was codified in several sections in the IRA (e.g., Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund [§60103], Climate Pollution Reduction Grants [§60114], Environmental and Climate Justice Block Grants [§60201], and Neighbor- hood Access and Equity Grants [§60501]). The 2023 Policy Landscape: Innovations, Barriers, Opportunities, and Requirements The current policy landscape of budgetary statutes and executive orders is limiting the reach of public engagement. The IIJA and the IRA authorize and appropriate es- sential funding for infrastructure deployment but only feature modest opportunities for engaging the public, primarily through funding requirements that distribute ben- efits via access to technologies and economic opportunities. Public engagement is a significant barrier to IIJA and IRA implementation in both areas of low and high readi- ness to capitalize on available funding. In parts of the country primed to capitalize on funding for projects, the increased activity is likely to generate new siting and permit- ting conflicts. In other areas of the country, shortfalls in human and organizational capacity and readiness to act will limit the impact of many of these laws’ provisions. Gaps in engagement also create barriers at the local and community level and exac- erbate equity concerns. For example, many of the provisions for technology adoption will primarily engage wealthy households and businesses, given the laws’ reliance on 248 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 248 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract subsidies. Executive Orders (EOs) 13985 and 14008 created parameters and strategies to advance equity and established supporting task forces, initiatives, and working groups to support equitable outcomes. However, as Chapter 2 points out, the admin- istration’s executive-level approach to equity and justice is not codified in law and faces significant implementation challenges. Furthermore, the scope of publics that must be effectively engaged in supporting decarbonization extends far beyond disad- vantaged communities; public engagement needs to provide opportunities for every potential stakeholder, regardless of income status or region, to play a role in decision- making processes throughout the transition to a net-zero energy future. Much of the implementation of the IRA and IIJA will ultimately be carried out by state and local governments and other subnational actors,3 accentuating the gap between leaders and laggards. The continued politicization of climate action poses a major obstacle to the transfer of knowledge from states that are further along the transition to others that have made less progress (Gustafson et al. 2019). Deploying decarboniza- tion in a fractured political landscape is an opportunity for innovative public engage- ment. However, this engagement will come in the form of support and opposition to aspects of the transitions, specifically the deployment and adoption of new technolo- gies.4 This is not an insignificant concern; decarbonization is a whole-of-the-nation challenge. To be successful, areas of the country with a Republican majority will play a substantial role in many facets of the transition to net zero. This is especially true for the siting of extensive infrastructure within communities and the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and heat pumps by households. Box 5-2 summarizes the opportunities made available by recent U.S. policy and the chapter recommendations associated with them. It is critical for the White House and federal agencies to develop a comprehensive approach to public engagement that makes the U.S. public full partners in deep decarbonization. What is needed goes beyond simply adding public engagement as a requirement to federal grants and providing modest funding for community em- powerment, as important as those efforts are. To address the challenges that threaten progress on the social contract needed for rapid deep decarbonization, the committee 3  Subnational actors, also known as non-federal actors, are states, cities, corporations, philanthropic and religious organizations, and academic institutes (Cyrs and Elliot 2018), as well as regions, tribal nations, and civil society (Kok and Ludwig 2022). The role of subnational actors is further discussed in Chapter 13. 4  Case in point: A group of Wyoming state legislators recently introduced a bill proposing the phase out of electric vehicles (Wyoming State Legislature 2023). Mounting, and increasingly coordinated, resistance to renewable energy deployment in response to aggressive state mandates is visible in numerous media reports (e.g., see Catenacci [2022]; Clifford [2022]; French [2023]; Gearino [2022]; Gelles [2022]; Rittman [2023]) and is the subject of increased scholarly attention (e.g., see Crawford et al. [2022]; Nilson [2022]). 249 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 249 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S BOX 5-2 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT Executive-Level and Congressional Actions • Convene a federally sponsored national public dialogue to engage all residents in a robust vision for decarbonization (Recommendation 5-1a). • Enact legislation to facilitate development of geothermal, solar, or wind energy on public lands (Recommendation 5-3). • Mandate a national public engagement workforce assessment (Recommendation 5-6a). • Require best practices in meaningful engagement in federal environmental review practices (Recommendation 5-8). Department of Energy (DOE) Initiatives • Develop regional planning networks to convene inclusive multi-stakeholder dialogues around place-based decarbonization (Recommendation 5-1b). • Develop an assessment-informed national workforce development program focused on public engagement professions and professional competencies (Recommendation 5-6b). • Fund legal clinics at public institutions to provide technical assistance in collective and com- munity benefit programs (Recommendation 5-6c). • Develop place-based internships to deliver immediate capacity for local dialogue and plan- ning efforts (Recommendation 5-6b). • Support public engagement in DOE deployment strategies (Recommendation 5-6b). • Convene a national working group on innovation in generation facility siting processes with input from state energy officials (Recommendation 5-5). • Encourage rapid analysis and action plan to address public access and engagement chal- lenges in decarbonization decision-making (Recommendation 5-1c). Federal Research and Development and Capacity-Building Investments • Integrate human dimensions research and graduate training into all clean energy technol- ogy research, innovation, and deployment programs (Recommendation 5-9a). • Deploy an independent research program focused on the basic human and social sciences of energy (Recommendation 5-9b). • Develop a network of regional, university-led research centers for energy transitions (Recom- mendation 5-9c). • Deploy a national energy science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education network and program (Recommendation 5-10). Civil Society Initiatives • Pilot regional planning networks to test models and lay the groundwork for subsequent federal action with philanthropic support (Recommendation 5-7a). • Develop collaborative regional land and resource use plans focused on renewable en- ergy deployment opportunities (Recommendation 5-7b). 250 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 250 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract BOX 5-2  Continued Priorities for Subnational Actors • Encourage the development, implementation, assessment, and sharing of policy and practice that deliver local benefits (Recommendation 5-2). • Ensure that renewable energy facilities contribute to public services and provide fund- ing for economic diversification (Recommendation 5-3). • Reform fiscal policy to increase direct local benefits for hosting renewable energy facili- ties (Recommendation 5-4). offers a series of detailed recommendations to address gaps in the current approach to public engagement. These recommendations are organized around four areas of innovation that are essential to successfully decarbonize the U.S. energy system: 1. Strengthening energy democracy through inclusive public dialogues: What are the opportunities and challenges for expanding energy democracy? 2. Community energy, energy sovereignty, and collective benefits: How can the transition to carbon neutrality promote projects that meaningfully advance local stakeholders’ goals that go beyond the rapid deployment of clean energy technologies? 3. Meaningful engagement in siting and permitting: How can design, siting, ap- proval, and construction of new decarbonization infrastructures better engage publics in ways that manage conflict productively, meaningfully incorporate public input, and enhance trust and fairness? 4. Building the nation’s expertise in the human dimensions of decarbonization: What is needed to ensure (a) that efforts to transition the U.S. energy system are ro- bustly informed about how the transition impacts people and the roles people need to play in getting it done, and (b) that the public has the competency and literacy to be effective partners in deep decarbonization? This chapter describes the need for ambitious, broad, and differentiated forms of pub- lic engagement linked to transition planning and implementation. Recent scholarship emphases the need to frame public engagement in energy system transformation in terms of “wider ecologies of multiple interrelating practices of . . . participation that are constitutive of, shape, and are shaped by energy systems” (Chilvers et al. 2018, p. 208). Public engagement policies and practices encompass a great deal of government and private-sector activity. Unfortunately, in far too many cases and places, publics desiring to engage in clean energy debates and decision-making still need to actively advo- cate for and sometimes push themselves into processes, rather than being invited in. 251 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 251 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S The following sections focus on the opportunities for engagement present, nascent, or absent in the nation’s current climate and transition policy portfolio. The Creating Helpful Incentives to Produce Semiconductors and Science Act (CHIPS and Science Act) (P.L. 117-167, 2022) is also discussed as an exemplar of the kind of comprehensive research and development (R&D) policy initiative necessary to build the knowledge base for a national engagement strategy. While the policy recommendations focus primarily on federal actors, the committee also notes the important role of civil society and subnational entities. Finding 5-1: Public engagement that considers the complexity of human dimen- sions of energy systems and their intersection with lives and livelihoods of people is critical to the success of the transition. Yet, the current national decarboniza- tion policy portfolio lacks a comprehensive strategy and adequate workforce and resources for engaging the public to advance and maintain a social contract for deep decarbonization. There is potential for innovative public engagement to be developed and incorporated into a social contract to support the pace and scale of infrastructural investment and construction needed for the transition of the national energy system to net zero. STRENGTHENING ENERGY DEMOCRACY THROUGH INCLUSIVE POLICY DIALOGUES The Challenge Energy democracy is the ability of democratic publics to meaningfully participate in governing U.S. energy systems. Efforts to enhance and expand energy democracy start from the recognition that “energy is inescapably political” (Nadesan et al. 2023, p. xxxvii) and, therefore, that decarbonization should be governed in a manner that is consistent with societies’ broad commitments to democratic norms and principles. The idea that new ways of organizing energy systems could support the growth of democratic societies and be carried out in ways that would enhance democracy has a long history (e.g., see Lilienthal 1944). Recent analyses of energy democracy have highlighted the substantial power, scope, scale, and influence of energy systems in contemporary economies and societies (Miller 2022) and the growing efforts of activ- ists and citizens to open and/or decentralize energy governance, decision-making, systems, and operations (Burke and Stephens 2018; Szulecki 2018). Central to energy democracy is inclusive policy dialogue, supporting avenues for the public to inform, deliberate, and contribute to choices about future trajectories of energy systems. Inclusive policy dialogue encourages all members of the public, 252 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 252 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract particularly those left out of policy discussions, to deliberate and help shape policy proposals and implementation (Forester 1999; McCoy and Scully 2002). Researchers have identified four elements of inclusive dialogue: participation, information, fair decision-making, and local context (Elmallah and Rand 2022). This is an admittedly tricky issue to operationalize. Democracy in the United States is subject to intense and divisive polarization, so it is risky to presume a set of shared norms and prin- ciples or the capacity to act on shared norms in constructive ways (Sides et al. 2022). By that logic, however, it is even more important to protect the integrity of energy deliberation processes through a deliberate commitment to the mechanisms de- scribed here. Engagement mechanisms that catalyze equitable deep decarbonization address each of the elements of inclusive dialogue. Such procedures have been used in small ­deliberative groups of the general public and open sessions of e-governance. See Box 5-3 for an example of the challenges and opportunities associated with develop- ing new settings for engagement in policy design. Mechanisms of public deliberation must focus on improving deliberative processes, as well as outcomes. “This means more inclusion and procedural integrity, increasing participants’ knowledge and their commitment to democratic norms, and providing symbolic value as a means of legitimizing institutions forced to make difficult decisions” (Gastil 2018, p. 273). In the context of decarbonization, inclusive policy dialogue includes two-way, multi-sited,5 and continuous engagements that connect policy to affected publics from the local to the regional to the national scale. Change is under way in the energy and electricity sectors that aims to open gov- ernance and decision-making to broader and more inclusive public participation, especially regarding decarbonization. As the world reimagines and redesigns how it produces and consumes energy, many communities and organizations have seen the desirability of expanding efforts to engage different facets of the public. Globally, gov- ernments are also increasingly looking for new ways of public involvement in develop- ing and deliberating the future of energy, using methods such as citizens’ assemblies (Lacelle-Webster and Warren 2021) and community visioning (Trutnevyte et al. 2011), on scales from cities (Sandover et al. 2021) to countries (Devaney et al. 2020; Duvic- Paoli 2022; Shehabi and Al-Masri 2022). Innovative inclusion can help deepen the impact of already-established best practices in industrial development, including strategic environmental assessment (SEA), a pro- cedure to assess the environmental impacts of a program, policy, or plan. For example, the SEA process, conducted at national or regional scales, “acts in anticipation of 5  Offered in diverse venues to accommodate the different capacities and constraints of participants. 253 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 253 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S BOX 5-3 CREATIVE TECHNOLOGY USE TO FACILITATE INCLUSIVE POLICY DEVELOPMENT The U.S. House of Representatives Natural Resources Committee has recently experimented with holding inclusive public dialogues. In 2014, Representative Raúl Grijalva, chair of the House Natural Resources Committee, introduced what he thought was the perfect bill to address en- vironmental justice concerns (Meeker 2021). However, the bill failed. In 2019, he and the late Representative Donald McEachin tried again with a new process that engaged environmental justice groups from around the nation before the new bill was drafted. The working group of environmental justice organizations was invited to join in-person and online convenings with congressional staffers to exchange expertise, experiences, and perspectives. Together, they iden- tified guiding principles that were incorporated into the text of the committee’s draft bill. This draft bill text was then shared through an online platform through which members of the work- ing group could comment directly on the proposed bill text. The platform received more than 350 comments, which the committee incorporated into the text of H.R. 2021—Environmental Justice for All Act.a This process has been generally well-received: the online platform was created by POPVOX, Inc., a private technology company, and was viewed as a non-partisan forum that offered trans- parency to the process and the data (Sobczyk 2020). Additionally, non-experts were able to access the platform to participate in the same forums as experts. Through the working group, the public learned about the decisions and trade-offs that policy makers must make, gaining understanding of democratic practice. Yet, the process is not without concerns, perhaps the most visible of which is that it was not initiated in a bipartisan manner—only Democratic Representa- tives and their staff participated in the forum. Moving toward a just energy future will require bipartisan involvement in deliberative processes. While the online nature of the POPVOX forum allowed for participation from people across the country, technology is not without social dimensions that can act as obstacles to participation. For example, broadband is not evenly distributed across the country nor is recre- ational time evenly distributed across economic status. Last, scaling online forums would require balancing how to identify participants for working groups and the role of anonymity in certain processes. These factors, in addition to concerns about fraud and administrative burdens as- sociated with high volumes of comments are under consideration in the context of regulatory rulemaking (ACUS 2021). Other experiments are also being explored, more directly related to energy and decarbon- ization. For example, the Department of Energy is currently building a novel consent-based siting process for examining future potential nuclear waste repository sites in the United States (DOE 2022). This process has the foundation of earlier innovation in public consultation and participatory technology assessment (Richter et al. 2022). Continued innovation will support the diversity of public engagement opportunities that are available during the transition to a net-zero energy future. a The bill was reintroduced as H.R. 1705—A. Donald McEachin Environmental Justice for All Act. 254 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 254 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract future problems, needs, or challenges and creates and examines alternatives leading to the preferred option” (Noble 2000, p. 210). This prospective, integrated approach is associated with “greater efficiency in resource use, shortened the duration of the project level assessment process and proactively contributed to achieving improved environmental practices” when compared to conventional project impact assessments (Fischer et al. 2020, p. 35). Additionally, SEAs can provide the clarification of the neces- sary policy reforms for industry deployment. For example, in Saskatchewan, Canada’s SEA process produced a blueprint for coordinated institutional reforms necessary to enable a successful regional transition to renewable energy (Nwanekezie et al. 2022). While SEAs do not eliminate controversy, they can mitigate against time lost to the contentious politics created by after-the-fact rulemaking—something already evi- dent in tensions between state and local governments about renewable energy laws (Dawson 2023; Paullin 2022). For example, the relegation of key decisions about natural resources to state and local politics has created a highly uneven and uncer- tain regulatory landscape for shale gas developers to navigate (Rabe 2014). The risks associated with shale gas development—increased consumption of water, induced earthquakes, air quality impacts, and increased truck traffic, noise, and dust (DOE n.d.(c))—have created public controversy. In fact, the state of Texas eventually con- ducted a SEA, recognizing a need to “improve the broad understanding and aware- ness of the impacts of shale production” (TAMEST 2017, p. 15). Generative dialogue, conversations that create and expand understanding through meaningful inquiry, is a key aspect of inclusive engagement. Examples in Arizona, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia illustrate applications of generative dialogue in different dimensions and settings of the energy transition. The 2011 Arizona Town Hall brought together more than 100 policy, business, civil society, and energy leaders to discuss strategies for advancing the state’s energy future (Miller and Moore 2011). Other future-oriented initiatives in the state have solicited diverse stakeholder participation in creating scenarios of the future of solar energy (Miller et al. 2015), identifying potential economic pathways for decarbonization (Miller et al. 2022a), and imagining the impacts of future renewable energy development on urban and rural life (Eschrich and Miller 2019, 2021). In Canada, a national dialogue about the energy future in 2017 was attended by more than 380,000 people who identified pub- lic values and principles to guide efforts to design and build Canada’s national energy future (Government of Canada 2017). This public engagement mechanism included multiple venues: in-person sessions, online comment submission forums, and polls and quizzes. Through this set of events, a 14-member “Generation Energy Council” collected input from citizens to be used to inform its recommendations to Canada’s decision makers (Government of Canada 2018). 255 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 255 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S Generative dialogue can also take the form of citizens’ climate assemblies, which incentivize representative, small groups of the public to participate in the policy- shaping process at national and local levels. Citizens’ climate assemblies have been established in the United Kingdom6 and have the potential to (Devine- Wright 2022): • Provide upstream engagement to develop an understanding of concerns and values before projects are proposed; • Enable net-zero policy to have broader legitimacy and better inclusion; • Make information, including about national or state energy policy, more accessible; • Bridge the gap between the national and local level; • Give participants a chance to form their own informed views about a given technology through interactions with expert witnesses; and • Identify which technologies are suitable for the county location. Through all the above strategies, climate assemblies intend to generate socially ac- ceptable plans for infrastructure development. Elsewhere, there is support for deliberative dialogue about energy futures in re- gions experiencing widespread abandonment of fossil fuel facilities. In Australia, practitioners and academics—and in some cases, industry—support consider- ation of social impacts of and public perspectives on mine closures in addition to the policy focus on environmental rehabilitation in coal-dependent areas (Cameron and Gibson 2005; Measham et al. 2021). For example, AGL Energy Ltd., an Australian publicly traded utility, recently commissioned a study of commu- nity perspectives on reclamation options for three Latrobe Valley coal mines and surrounding lands. Community perspectives were “obtained through a series of focus groups with key stakeholders, including community organizations, environ- mental groups, government authorities, business groups, primary producers and Traditional Owners; and a web-based survey, completed by over 560 participants” (Reeves et al. 2022, p. 173). The resulting study generated a community-driven plan for further consultation about options for remediation to include “an iterative con- sultative or co-design process to capture values, share opportunities and address concerns” with “[t]he voices of youth and Traditional Owners . . . at the forefront” (Reeves et al. 2022, p. 184). 6  See for example the UK Climate Assembly, consisting of 108 participants representative of the UK population, and the Devon Climate Assembly, made up of 70 participants representative of Devon County (Devine-Wright 2022; Devine-Wright and Moseley 2019). 256 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 256 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract Opportunities and Barriers in Current Policy Federal Opportunities and Barriers Recent legislative action does not provide formal direction and support for generative public dialogue activities, as shown in Appendix I. Instead, the most explicit federal commitments to inclusive dialogue on the energy transition can be found in executive directives and interagency initiatives. For example, the White House Environmental Justice Advisory Council (WHEJAC), established by EO 14008, brings together a coun- cil of experts who “have knowledge about or experience in environmental justice, climate change, disaster preparedness, racial inequity, among other areas of expertise” (EPA 2021). It encourages the experts to provide advice and input on policy develop- ment and implementation, including providing in-depth recommendations on key policy initiatives such as the Justice40 Initiative. Public comment at WHEJAC meetings demonstrates that the council is attracting and facilitating input from representa- tives of communities who have previously lacked meaningful access to federal policy conversations.7 However, WHEJAC and other advisory groups or initiatives created through executive orders lack administrative support and adequate resources, under- mining their efficacy (CEQ 2022; WHEJAC 2022a). In addition, the emphasis on envi- ronmental and climate justice, while critical, does not always encompass all energy transition questions and issues. Several new offices have been established to facilitate federal support of public engagement in the energy transition. The U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commis- sion (FERC) recently established a new Office of Public Participation to build capacity to facilitate public involvement in FERC processes. The goal of the office is to help the public better understand the institution and to reform agency rules and practices to ensure that the agency hears from the publics that it needs to hear from in order to make good decisions (FERC 2022). The Department of Energy (DOE) has also begun to include commitments to community engagement as an important criterion in review- ing federal energy R&D investments, although the ultimate efficacy of the resulting engagement practices remains to be determined (DOE-OCED n.d.). Recently, DOE introduced its new Office of Energy Justice Policy and Analysis, which will collaborate with members of minority and disadvantaged communities to evaluate policy impacts and administer programs that advance energy justice and equity (DOE 2023). 7  For example, the May 11, 2022, meeting minutes summarize the updates and the public comment period, during which the public expressed concerns related to environmental justice in their communities. For more information, see WHEJAC (2022b). 257 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 257 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S The Interagency Working Group (IWG) on Coal and Power Plant Communities and Economic Revitalization is an exception to the gap in federal prioritization of acces- sible and continuous public dialogue on the energy transition. As further discussed in Chapter 12, the IWG is an explicit acknowledgment that maintaining a social contract in support of decarbonization demands engaging impacted communities by “[r]ecognizing the importance of meeting these communities where they are” in the energy transition (IWG 2023, p. 5).8 The IWG focuses on economic and technical assistance to communities with high numbers of “workers directly employed in coal mining and power generation, and also the workers in related jobs in logistics and services, residents who are dependent on coal-related tax revenue” (IWG 2021, p. 1). However, the IWG was not designed to facilitate prospective policy dialogue and is currently limited to locations that host coal mines and coal-fired power plants. Re- gardless, this is a significant strategy that merits continued investment, financial and otherwise, from the federal government and is a good model for general and targeted engagement during the transition. State and Regional Opportunities and Barriers As introduced in Chapter 2, some states have enacted legislation that promotes com- munity engagement to facilitate energy transition planning. These initiatives often focus on including historically excluded populations and centering their priorities in program and policy development. Following the passage of the Climate Leader- ship and Community Protection Act of 2019 (S. 6599, 2019–2020 Sen., Reg. Sess. §1), New York created a Climate Justice Working Group that includes representatives from environmental justice communities across the state to provide strategic advice to state policy makers regarding the economic, social, and environmental impacts of the transition (New York State 2022). As part of Washington state’s Climate Commitment Act (2021), which incorporates just transition principles into utility and energy sec- tor regulation, the Environmental Justice Council was established to provide formal 8 The IWG recently released its year 2 report outlining the activities the working group and the Biden ad- ministration have undertaken since the signing of EO 14008. The report includes the progress made in terms of keeping the promises made in its first report to the President. Of note, the IWG oversaw a set of round- tables that discussed the funding opportunities made available by the new U.S. Economic Development Administration office, established to provide a foundation for durable regional economies. These actions allowed the working group to keep its promise to “launch a series of town hall meetings . . . to both listen to the concerns of key constituencies and identify federal resources communities could immediately access” (IWG 2023, p. 3). View the IWG report at https://energycommunities.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/ IWG-Two-Year-Report-to-the-President.pdf. 258 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 258 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract advice on the implementation of climate policies (Washington State Department of Ecology n.d.). The Climate Commitment Act also includes dedicated support for tribal participation in climate project planning. In addition to legislation, some states have committed to engaging the public through collaborative, multi-scalar regional planning for the energy transition. California’s Transformative Climate Communities program is discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Re-Imagine Appalachia, a coalition of civil society, elected officials, and activists, is focused on creating regional dialogue about how the energy transition can “boost economic opportunity and benefit working people” through deliberate policy choices (Brown 2021). Notably, the coalition regularly uses digital convenings to solicit input from diverse stakeholders about specific policies and update their “Blueprint” for the region’s economic transition, which connects local priorities to broader policy op- portunities and priorities (ReImagine Appalachia 2021). States and communities are more likely to access support from new federal programs when the programs have prioritized the network-building, visioning, and capacity necessary to ensure equitable and effective investments. Box 5-4 highlights an engagement practice from Canada’s Participant Funding and Policy Dialogue program, which provides compensation for participation. There are substantial opportunities for states, localities, and tribes to leverage the ap- propriated funding of the IIJA and the IRA for participatory and innovative planning and visioning for local and regional energy transitions. These opportunities include the $150 million Reconnecting Communities Pilot program (IIJA §11509), $16 billion to address legacy pollution (IIJA §40601, §40701), and $11 billion total funding avail- able for community block grants (IRA §60114,9 §60201, and §60501). Areas with high levels of existing capacity and bridging social capital10 are expected to access and deploy these funds with ease. Conversely, lower-resourced and less-networked areas will struggle to access, let alone implement, the funds to support inclusive dialogues about the energy transition. It is critical to augment capacity gaps for the transi- tion to include opportunities for generative dialogues (see Recommendation 2-4 in Chapter 2). Until these opportunities to take advantage of federal funding are trans- lated into effective state, local, and community action, however, many critical aspects of state clean energy and climate development will remain inaccessible to many individuals and communities. 9  At the time of writing, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicates this money will include non-competitive funds for planning, followed by competitive implementation grants (EPA 2023). 10  A social network of individuals with different demographic characteristics. 259 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 259 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S BOX 5-4 CANADIAN MODEL FOR COMPENSATION FOR PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN LOCAL CLIMATE ACTION Stakeholders who would otherwise be excluded from participation owing to social and economic circumstances can be compensated for their time and expertise. Canada’s Participant Funding and Policy Dialogue Programs provide travel support, stipends, and other resources for individuals and groups. This is done under the principle that enabling public participation means “assessments can be more open, balanced, credible and of higher quality” (Impact Assessment Agency of Canada 2022). An expert report on best practices in citizen engagement in local cli- mate action planning provides this valuable insight on the role of compensation: The majority of the Citizens’ Assemblies cited in this report have provided a small honorarium or “gift” to compensate participants for their time, usually as a monetary reward or sometimes as vouchers. One of the reasons behind this practice is a simple acknowledgement of the significant time and commitment involved, and because payment can help sustain participant involvement. Importantly, it helps to deliver inclusivity, by ensuring that people on low incomes can participate and are not deterred by the prospect of foregone earnings.… A further reason for providing payment is that without this, only those who are intrinsically motivated by the topic may volunteer, resulting in a sample is biased toward those with more pro-social or communitarian views or with stronger views on the topic at hand.… The flip side, however, is that some people may take part purely for the financial incentive and may therefore not be committed to the process. (Devine-Wright and Moseley 2019, p. 21) The Participant Funding and Policy Dialogue programs and other proactive policies to advance public inclusion in climate planning provide an adaptable template for nascent U.S. efforts to meaningfully engage publics in decarbonization action (see Recommendation 5-5). Utility Opportunities and Barriers Electric utilities across the country are also developing new strategies for engaging with communities who are impacted by their decisions. Target communities include those where coal-fired power plants are closing (e.g., the Salt River Project’s Coal Com- munity Transition initiative [SRP n.d.]), low-income and minority communities that experience high energy burdens (e.g., Sacramento Municipal Utility District’s Building Sustainable Communities program [SMUD n.d.]), and frontline communities grap- pling with the long-term challenges of pollution and other environmental risks (e.g., New York Power Authority’s Environmental Justice program [NYPA n.d.]). However, the development of investor-owned utility regulation and ratemaking is overseen by state public utility commissions (PUCs) or public service commissions whose processes, au- thorities, and functions resemble those of courts (EPA 2010). As a result, participating in utility regulatory decision-making processes in most states is complex, expensive, technical, and may require representation by an attorney. These costs and barriers are prohibitive for community-based organizations and individuals. Some mechanisms 260 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 260 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract exist to make the process more accessible, including through intervenor compensa- tion rules, the establishment by some state legislatures of non-governmental state Citizens Utility Boards (CUBs) to advocate consumer interests and priorities in PUC settings (e.g., Minnesota’s CUB [CUB Minnesota n.d.]), and grant programs to improve public participation (e.g., the California PUC’s Equity Initiatives and Clean Energy Ac- cess Grant Program, currently under development [CPUC 2023]). In general, however, the effectiveness of these mechanisms is modest. Findings and Recommendations The examples and conceptual underpinnings of inclusive policy dialogue described above underscore the importance of the public contribution to energy transition dialogue and visioning. These approaches help to align public values and policy goals; build public understanding and awareness; incorporate community perspectives into policies and infrastructures; uncover potential roadblocks or policy gaps; allow com- munities to shape and design meaningful co-benefits; and coordinate across scale, region, and sector with multi-scalar planning activities. However, neither the IIJA nor IRA provide formal direction or support for generative dialogue. Finding 5-2: The United States is failing to engage in sufficient public dialogue to facilitate the pace, scale, and equity ambitions of deep decarbonization by 2050. More determined and consistent prioritization of and support for regional plan- ning is needed to compensate for the uneven levels of preexisting technical and social capacity and political will across the nation. Successful regional dialogues currently under way in metro, remote and tribal, and rural regions provide models and templates upon which to build. Recommendation 5-1: Encourage Prospective, Inclusive Dialogue at National and Regional Levels. The National Climate Task Force (NCTF), Department of Energy (DOE), and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) should pursue multiple avenues to encourage prospective, inclusive dialogue at the na- tional and regional levels. a. The NCTF should convene a formal national public conversation on the energy transition using state-of-the-art public relations, communica- tions, and engagement strategies to appeal to diverse sectors and social groups and to meaningfully draw them into the public discussion. It should prioritize involvement of groups often left out of energy planning activities such as rural populations, fenceline communities, workers in carbon-intensive industries, and the nation’s youth. 261 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 261 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S b. DOE and EPA should establish regional systems planning networks and convene multi-stakeholder dialogues around place-based decarboniza- tion strategies so that subnational actors and Indigenous nations can build the necessary capacity to take full advantage of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act and the Inflation Reduction Act. Participatory planning efforts should aim to identify positive intersections among miti- gation and energy service priorities, including economic development, public health, accessibility, and climate resilience. c. DOE’s Office of Energy Justice and Equity should direct a rapid analysis and detailed action plan to address public access and engagement chal- lenges in state public utility and public service commission proceedings and other key sites of decision-making for decarbonization. Engagement of a multi-sectoral steering committee with representatives from public interest groups, civil society, the utility industry, and regulatory agencies will ensure the effort’s credibility and impact. COMMUNITY ENERGY, ENERGY SOVEREIGNTY, AND COLLECTIVE BENEFITS The Challenge Extending energy democracy to the participation of individuals in small-scale energy systems and large-scale transition projects is key to the clean energy future. This includes increased opportunities for small groups or communities to own and oper- ate energy processes and to directly benefit from decarbonization actions, includ- ing through community and tribal energy systems that provide collective benefits. For low-income communities, the benefits of clean energy development have the potential to permanently lower energy burdens, with proper policy support (Biswas et al. 2022). Similarly, localized renewable energy infrastructures are increasingly understood as opportunities for Indigenous nations to pursue self-determination and sovereignty, as well as economic development and resilience. Community Energy Systems There is a global explosion of interest in decentralized energy production, such as dis- tributed solar energy, as an important element of democratizing involvement in and control of energy systems (Lotfi et al. 2020). While many end-use energy technologies have always been owned in a decentralized fashion (e.g., automobiles, furnaces, and electrical devices), in recent years, data show that U.S.-distributed solar generation 262 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 262 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract has grown faster than utility-scale solar generation (EIA 2023).11 Furthermore, a recent survey and interviews in New York state found that support for community or rooftop solar among rural residents is significantly higher than support for utility-scale solar (Nilson and Stedman 2022). The number of distributed solar systems is likely to con- tinue growing nationally given the tax credits in the IRA and the potential for rooftop solar to reduce household energy bills. Individual ownership is not the only mechanism for distributed solar systems. In the European Union, for example, energy cooperatives and neighborhood microgrids have emerged as an important strategy for enhanced public engagement and in- volvement in the clean energy transition (Inês et al. 2020; Lowitzsch et al. 2020). In the United States, DOE has set a target for the National Community Solar Partnership12 of enabling community solar projects that power the equivalent of 5 million homes by 2025. Such investments can provide widespread benefits that help generate support for decarbonization by reducing long-term electricity costs and providing a means for using clean energy to strengthen other household goals (e.g., resilience to electricity grid outages). However, as noted elsewhere in this report (Chapters 2 and 6), equity is a major concern given the high up-front capital costs required for distributed energy systems and microgrids, and the challenge of ensuring affordability and reliability of system operations and maintenance. Chapter 2 describes policies to facilitate disad- vantaged communities’ participation in distributed and community-owned energy systems. Tribal Energy Sovereignty Efforts to leverage decarbonization and clean energy technologies to enhance Indig- enous energy sovereignty have also emerged as an important focus of discussion, policy development, and investment (Atcitty 2021; Kinder 2021; Montoya 2022; Roys- ter 2008; Schelly et al. 2020; Smith 2022a). This is not surprising given both the grow- ing prevalence of distributed energy systems and the reassertion of sovereignty as a key priority for many Indigenous communities, both in the United States and around the globe (Rezaei and Dowlatabadi 2015). Tribally owned and operated community energy systems, when executed with attention to the feasibility of long-term opera- tions and maintenance, can “multi-solve” for energy service access and climate resil- ience. For example, the Blue Lake Rancheria, a federally recognized tribal government 11  Fora study of the extent and dimensions of social preference for household and community-scale distributed solar in Puerto Rico, see Echevarria et al. (2023). 12  See https://www.energy.gov/communitysolar/national-community-solar-partnership-targets. 263 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 263 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S and Native American community, provides an example of a successful community-led effort to exercise sovereignty and enhance climate resilience through energy systems. The community’s microgrid is connected to the regional distribution system and is designed to operate autonomously—when a nearby fire in 2017 caused a grid out- age, the microgrid was successfully islanded and facilities avoided a blackout. Energy savings to the Blue Lake Rancheria are estimated at nearly $200,000 annually (Carter et al. 2019). Other examples include the energy efficiency and renewable energy invest- ments at the Navajo Nation (Diné Bikéya in Navajo) (Begay 2018a) and Citizen Potowa- tomi Nation (Neshnabé) (Begay 2018b). In cases where Indigenous nations host energy infrastructure designed to export power (e.g., high-voltage transmission lines and utility-scale storage and generation facilities), there is new attention and interest in models favorable to development, in contrast to historic practices. In a landmark example in 2021, the Morongo Band of Mission Indians was approved as the first Native American tribe to be a participating transmission owner in a major system. Through the agreement with Southern Califor- nia Edison (SCE), the Morongo Band secured a capital interest in the project and its returns and improved the terms of the lease, allowing access over tribally held terri- tory (ICT News 2022). The Morongo–SCE agreement was highly complex and required many layers of regulatory approval, a barrier some have cited as one of many facing tribes that seek to use renewable energy for economic development (Zimmerman and Reames 2021). Similarly, the agreement between the Navajo Nation and Salt River Project surrounding the closure of the Navajo Generating Station coal-fired power plant and associated mine also gave the Navajo substantial access to transmission capability for future renewable energy development (Pyper 2019). The regulatory challenges associated with these agreements need to be addressed to support energy sovereignty within Indigenous nations. Collective Benefits Compensation and benefits schemes are critical aspects of engaging the public around large-scale energy infrastructure. According to research on social dimensions of facility siting, local stakeholders often view community or local benefits mechanisms—and the processes and negotiations associated with them—through lenses of trustworthi- ness and fairness. In this way, compensation emerges as an element of procedural, not just distributive, justice, which has a profound influence on the acceptability of proposed projects (Crawford et al. 2022; Hoen et al. 2019; Jørgensen et al. 2020; Knauf 2022; van Wijk et al. 2021). The rapid acceleration of renewable energy deploy- ment is encouraging creativity in compensation models such as community benefit 264 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 264 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract agreements, pooled payments to landowner collectives, and innovative state fiscal policy. These models demonstrate increased consideration of the importance of distrib- utive justice to securing a social contract to site and host large-scale renewable energy facilities. Indeed, payments and other monetary benefits to individuals, communities, and governments do influence both the social acceptance and local impacts of energy developments—although public acceptance and local impacts are not always corre- lated in straightforward ways. However, collective payment schemes and community benefits agreements in renewable energy development are very novel tools with many potential legal issues yet to be identified and resolved (Fazio and Wallace 2017). With vast areas capable of hosting utility-scale generation and interstate transmission lines, federal and state public lands and waters offer an important opportunity for the U.S. public to contribute to and even facilitate deployment of renewable energy (Springer and Daue 2020). While state and federal property are not taxable by local governments, their use for facility siting can generate public revenue in the form of lease and bonus payments, right of way rentals, and even generation taxes. Despite the apparent opportunities embedded in the nation’s public land and water holdings as sites for renewable energy deployment, this estate will likely continue to be an underutilized decarbonization resource without necessary policy reforms. Opportunities and Barriers in Current Policy The current policy landscape creates new opportunities to engender public support for energy infrastructure through projects with clear local benefits that outweigh the costs. This could meaningfully comprise the growth of community-scale and energy sovereignty–focused development as well as creative public and collective benefits schemes. The primary vehicles in federal policy include the following IRA provisions listed in Table 5-1. An additional boost for community benefits includes efforts by federal agencies to promote community benefits agreements as a new criterion in evaluating loan and grant application reviews. DOE is relying heavily on Community Benefits Plans13 as a vehicle to meet requirements under the Justice40 Initiative, which applies to all IRA and IIJA funding opportunity announcements (FOAs) (DOE n.d.(a)). Likewise, the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s New ERA program supports rural electric cooperatives 13  Community Benefit Plans as defined by DOE are inclusive of community benefits agreements and include Collective Bargaining Agreements and other elements. The DOE Community Benefits Plan tem- plate can be downloaded at https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2023-05/CommunityBenefitsPlan Template.docx. 265 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 265 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S TABLE 5-1  IRA Provisions Supporting Community Energy Development, Energy Sovereignty, and Collective Benefits Provision(s) Description Investment and Production Tax Credits Provides certainty and reduces costs that have (§13101, §13102, §13103) previously been prohibitive for community solar (Coalition for Community Solar Access 2022). Investment Tax Credit and Energy Credit for Provides incentives for projects serving or located Renewable Facilities Near Low-Income in qualified low- to moderate-income communities Communities (§13103) (Coalition for Community Solar Access 2022). Tribal Energy Loan Guarantee Program Appropriates $75 million in loans for tribal investment (§50145) in energy-related projects (White House 2023). Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund—Zero Appropriates $7 billion to enable low-income and Emission Technologies Grant Program disadvantaged communities to deploy or benefit from (§60103) zero-emission technologies and other greenhouse gas emission reduction activities (White House 2023). Environmental and Climate Justice Block Appropriates $3 billion for community-led projects Grants (§60201) that address disproportionate harms related to pollution and climate change (White House 2023). and the communities they serve to develop clean energy resources and workforce skills needed for the transition (USDA n.d.). Together, programs in the IRA create meaningful investment opportunities for communities and their advocates to design and fund new, decarbonized energy infrastructure that aligns with local priorities. Community Energy Systems Many households and communities face steep barriers to deploying renewable energy projects that generate significant community benefits. In the example of solar, barriers include both lower levels of home ownership and lower financial capacity to cover the high up-front costs of rooftop solar and/or batteries. However, where low- or zero- down solar opportunities are available (e.g., via leasing), the resulting arrangements generally provide significantly lower financial savings than owning the solar panels. Ad- ditionally, in cases of fraudulent or predatory behavior, these opportunities might end up costing households (Vogelsong 2022). Last, many low-income households do not own their homes or otherwise have control over what happens on their rooftops. 266 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 266 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract Community solar projects offer a potential strategy for addressing the barriers associ- ated with rooftop solar, if designed well, but will need significant policy innovation to take off at a substantial scale (Chan et al. 2017; Grimley et al. 2022). These projects are often less expensive per watt than rooftop systems and stand-alone solar installa- tions because they are larger in scale, involving lots of households or installations in the hundreds of kilowatts of capacity, and they do not require home ownership. When financed effectively, or granted to the community, community solar projects can de- liver significant financial benefits. For example, the Canadian government has granted community ownership of solar projects to remote Indigenous communities (Govern- ment of Canada 2023). Through the ownership of energy projects, Indigenous com- munities have control over an energy project’s planning and management, jobs, and profits (Institute for Human Rights and Business 2023). In some models, low-income households can pay for their participation over time through their savings, resulting in lower bills and part-ownership in the solar project. Nonetheless, community solar remains a small portion of the nation’s solar installa- tions. Project-based collective benefits models are advanced and challenged by their relative flexibility and direct dependence on the capacity and will of non-regulatory actors. Community solar projects are enabled by law in fewer than half of U.S. states— and explicitly prohibited in others (DSIRE n.d.; ILSR n.d.). Even where allowed, either by law or voluntarily by utilities, community solar projects are often restricted to only one model. This limits the number and variety of communities where they can be applied and dramatically slows innovation in the sector. As the nation seeks to rapidly expand deployment of solar, especially in a future in which space for utility-scale projects is in- creasingly competitive, contested, and scarce, community solar projects offer a way to deploy solar and advance substantial equity goals. However, changes in federal, state, local, and utility policies are required to open opportunities for creative engagement and deployment of capital via diverse and heterogeneous community solar project models. This will be especially important to enable the historic investments antici- pated in community-based solar in the IRA. Tribal Energy Sovereignty For tribal nations, the opportunities are also historic. The IIJA provides more than $13 billion in funding for tribal infrastructure, including $2 billion for the Tribal Broad- band Connectivity Program, $200 million for climate adaptation and community relocation, and another $200 million to plug orphaned wells on tribal lands (White House 2022a). The IRA directs hundreds of millions in grants and an unprecedented $20 billion in allowable loan guarantees to support tribal climate resilience, access to 267 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 267 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S clean electricity, and building electrification (i.e., §50145, §50122, §80001, §80002, §80003, and §80004). The IRA also includes elective pay and transferable credits that “allows entities with little or no tax liability—like tribes—to accelerate utilization of these credits,” making renewable energy development on tribal lands “exponentially more beneficial” (Smith 2022b). However, the IRA has been criticized for offering a “blanket solution that did not address the disparate needs of the hundreds of federally recognized tribes” (Smith 2022b) and for failing to “capture the nuances of community needs and concerns,” par- ticularly in the context of EPA and DOE funding opportunity outreach efforts (Brown 2023). Furthermore, out of the $550 million in flexible, formula-allocated funding in the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant program, DOE has encumbered $110 million for administrative and technical assistance. This comes at the expense of additional funding to organizations that need it. Critics state this will “likely do little to make the program better or easier to navigate” (Brown 2023). Moreover, “many fund- ing opportunities require a project to be almost fully baked to be competitive” (Brown 2023)—a problem that also plagues recent federal funding programs for community solar initiatives. In a June 2022 National Academies’ information-gathering webinar, Alliance for Tribal Clean Energy14 founder and chief executive officer Cheri Smith (2022a) noted that despite having 2 decades of experience in applying for DOE funding, she and her col- leagues still need to hire someone to decipher the agency’s FOAs. Three ways federal agencies can improve the grant application process are (1) reducing the amount of time needed to write grant applications; (2) standardizing the application process; and (3) giving potential funding recipients a seat at the table in the discussions leading up to the creation of the FOAs. Smith (2022a) has also noted that the majority of tribal communities will need to build capacity and technical expertise to make use of these funds. To this end, the Indigenous-led nonprofit is leveraging philanthropic and fed- eral funding and Native experts so that tribes can build capacity to develop renewable electricity infrastructure on their homelands. See the section “Meaningful Engage- ment in Siting and Permitting” below for more information about utilizing funding to build community capacity. Collective Benefits One challenge for the deployment of utility-scale infrastructure is the variability in how public revenue policies approach renewable energy facilities (Hintz et al. 2021; Uebelhor 14  Formerly the Indigenous Energy Initiative. 268 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 268 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract et al. 2021). For example, some state tax incentives for renewable energy infrastructure are less attractive to local governments than fossil fuel facilities (Haggerty and Haggerty 2015). This challenges public investment and equitable deployment of decarbonization infrastructure, hindering the progress of the energy transition. There are also situations in which states formulate fiscal policy in reactive, haphazard ways, creating confusion for developers as well as local governments (Hintz et al. 2021; Uebelhor et al. 2021). Furthermore, depending on location and jurisdiction, siting facilities on public and private land and water can be a highly complicated policy matter. In the case of local benefits that accrue via property and other taxes, multiple factors converge to affect local project “buy in”: the quality of fiscal policy at the state level; the implementation of fiscal policy at the local level; and thoughtful spending decisions and associated com- munication by local officials (Haggerty et al. 2014; Mills et al. 2019). In almost all cases, revenue opportunities for renewable energy are far smaller than they are for fossil fuels and mined minerals because—unlike for oil, gas, and hard rock minerals—there is no severance tax on renewable energy (Godby 2022). This does not help to engender public support for large-scale renewable energy facilities on public lands. A notable leader in addressing this policy gap is New Mexico’s State Land Office, which created an Office of Renewable Energy with a mission to triple the amount of wind and solar energy generated on state trust land (Stewart 2022). Updates to auc- tion and contractual mechanisms used by the office and investments in capacity to work with the renewable energy industry have enabled the use of state trust lands to make meaningful commitments to climate mitigation and diversify funds raised for beneficiaries (Stewart 2022). In contrast, Congress has yet to update federal land man- agement guidelines to clarify key provisions regarding leasing and revenue programs, particularly for wind and solar. This regulatory gap hinders development and the delivery of public benefits from it.15 The policy space surrounding public revenue from private land is complicated. Regula- tions are underdeveloped, with many states scrambling to draft revenue policy in par- allel to emerging renewable energy development. Key challenges for public revenue from renewable energy facilities on private land include depreciation and, as in the case of public land, the absence of a severance tax. The major form of public revenue 15  For DOE-related lands specifically, the National Academies’ Committee on Energy Resource Po- tential for DOE Lands conducted an inventory of the energy development potential of lands, including (1) an analysis of all oil, gas, coal, solar, wind, geothermal, and other renewable resources on the lands; and (2) an analysis of the environmental impacts associated with future development, such as mitiga- tion actions for negative impacts. Of note, the committee recommended DOE place a higher priority on developing an inventory of lands that can be leased or sold for energy development (NASEM 2017). For more information, see https://doi.org/10.17226/24825. 269 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 269 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S comes from property taxes, from which industry advocates frequently succeed in win- ning relief in terms of incentives offered by state and local governments (Haggerty et al. 2014). However, scholars warn against using revenue for local tax relief (Mills 2022) because, despite being popular with voters, using new revenue to decrease local prop- erty taxes creates problems when that revenue declines—as it will in any fiscal policy regime with no counterbalance to depreciation. Elected officials must, therefore, use revenue in ways that demonstrate meaningful and sustainable value to the public. Findings and Recommendations Participation in energy systems offers important opportunities to engage in decar- bonization by providing an economic stake in the net-zero future to more groups. The ability for individual communities to leverage the programs created in recent legisla- tion depends on many factors, including capacity and institutional and policy envi- ronments. Sharing successful approaches will aid in the development of community energy systems, tribal energy sovereignty, and collective benefit models that support decarbonization and communities. Chapters 2, 6, and 13 offer additional insights and recommendations about building capacity for implementation. Additional opportu- nities to build practical expertise with community and collective benefits are noted below (see Recommendation 5-4). Finding 5-3: Community-scale, community-designed, and community-owned energy infrastructure can be more readily acceptable than large-scale industrial projects. The current federal policy environment encourages the expansion of community-driven energy infrastructure in places that are “ready to act” with appropriate regulations, political will, and planning capacity. Localities unable to leverage these necessary capacities will miss this historic opportunity. Finding 5-4: A lack of adequate expertise and institutional capacity hinders the dif- fusion and successful application of processes that can facilitate renewable energy development and provide collective benefits, including Community Benefits Agree- ments; collective leases and payments; and federal, state, and local revenue policies. Recommendation 5-2: Accelerate the Development, Implementation, Assess- ment, and Sharing of Energy System Policy and Approaches That Deliver Local Benefits from Decarbonization Investments. State, tribal, and local govern- ments should work in coordination with their representative coalitions and federal partners to accelerate the development, implementation, assess- ment, and sharing of policy and practical approaches that focus on delivering 270 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 270 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract local benefits from energy system decarbonization investments. These benefits can include local ownership, good neighbor and collective lease payments, and community benefit agreements. Furthermore, states should review, assess, identify, and address conflicts in state fiscal policy that result in suppressing the potential for renewable energy facilities to create local benefits in the form of public revenues. Finding 5-5: Despite the apparent opportunities embedded in the United States’ vast public land and water holdings as sites for renewable energy deployment, these locations are and will continue to be underutilized as a resource in decar- bonization. Among the necessary reforms, there are significant opportunities in state and federal law to improve public benefits associated with revenue pay- ments from renewable energy facilities. Recommendation 5-3: Fix Policy Gaps That Limit Role of Public Land in Decar- bonization. Congress and state legislatures should enact laws to expand the role of public land in decarbonization to facilitate long-term value creation and economic diversification. a. Congress should encourage geothermal, solar, and wind energy devel- opment on public lands by establishing priority areas for development, developing associated conservation and mitigation provisions, and pro- viding clarity about the amount and disposition of revenues from geo- thermal, solar, and wind development. A long-term “legacy fund” offers a preferred model for saving revenue from public land leasing for renew- able energy development. b. State legislatures should consider the example of New Mexico’s State Land Office and reform public policies governing the use of state-owned property to enable long-term, sustainable public revenue from renew- able energy. Finding 5-6: State-level policies often suppress the potential for renewable energy facilities to create direct local benefits in the form of public revenues. The mecha- nisms include aggressive tax rebates for certain types of energy, which often result in fossil fuel facilities being more lucrative than renewable energy projects, as well as less well-known limits on budget and expenditure discretion for local governments. Recommendation 5-4: Address Barriers to Local Benefits from Renewable Energy Facilities. States should review, identify, and address conflicts in state 271 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 271 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S fiscal policy that result in suppressing local benefit for hosting renewable energy facilities. By strengthening the relationships between decarboniza- tion and direct public benefits, fiscal policy reform has the potential to grow social acceptance for renewable energy facilities. MEANINGFUL ENGAGEMENT IN SITING AND PERMITTING The Challenge Innovation in public engagement to ensure distributive and procedural justice will be essential to the deployment of all deep decarbonization infrastructure across the full diversity and heterogeneity of communities and landscapes. While the factors influencing the social acceptance of energy infrastructures are multi-faceted (Boudet 2019), the local public processes to develop and execute infrastructure projects are a key venue for forming social acceptance of and included support for accelerated decarbonization. The relationship between social acceptance of renewable energy infrastructure and compensation schemes is about perceptions of procedural justice, trust and communication, and the level of compensation being provided. Policy and practices that encourage projects to provide clear and meaningful benefits to local stakeholders are critical to accelerating decarbonization. Scholars have been studying the relationship between siting policy and practice and social acceptance of energy projects since the emergence of a strong anti-nuclear movement in the 1970s (e.g., see Freudenburg 1986). They continue to produce novel and important findings in the context of new energy technologies as well as new research questions and approaches (Batel 2020; Bessette and Crawford 2022; Krupnik et al. 2022; van de Grift and Cuppen 2022). Research demonstrates that the character and quality of the process of engaging the public in the context of siting and permit- ting projects will affect the pace and scale of decarbonization.16 Taken as a whole, this literature underscores that there are no perfect solutions for public engagement to deliver speedy and conflict-free industrial siting decisions in an open democratic society. In addition, even the most creative and robust public engagement is unlikely to sway ardent opponents of projects. On the other hand, shortcutting public engage- ment can lead to far longer delays owing to the risk of driving alienated publics to courts, alternative policy forums, and other forms of protest. 16  See Chapter 6 for a discussion of how models project the impact of siting and project development. 272 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 272 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract In that context, scholars and practitioners point to key features of effective siting and permitting process that have the potential to reduce conflict and delay: 1. Public engagement in the context of project development requires inclusive, expansive, and immersive communication. This means that communication between project representatives, contractors, government officials, and local and public stakeholders is conducted in multiple languages and in diverse and accessible formats; begins early in the process and features continuous updates of project progress with easily accessible archives of past discussions; and utilizes both low- and high-tech strategies to help different groups visual- ize and guide changes to the natural and built environment. 2. Public engagement professionals representing developers and permitting agencies should treat local perspectives as constructive expertise in project design and give local communities the opportunity to participate in shap- ing the process and outcomes of important design decisions (Devine-Wright 2022; Goedkoop and Devine-Wright 2016; Sherren 2021). A corollary priority is supporting communities in the development of local and regional visions for land use and economic development when such plans are absent or ­neglected—and doing this prior to discussion of facility siting whenever pos- sible. In this manner, the siting discussion can build on and incorporate local visions rather than the other way around. 3. Public engagement needs to be customized to unique regions, demograph- ics, politics, economics, and social values. To every extent possible, flexibility in public engagement processes must be a priority for permitting practitioners to align with local circumstances. Clustering review processes for projects in the same geography also has merit for equitable, rapid, and intensive infra- structure deployment that acknowledges the risk of consultation fatigue (Bice 2020; Noble 2017). Zoned permitting is also noted to facilitate effective environmental impact assessment (Faconti 2013). 4. Public engagement should emphasize clarity, transparency, and accountability in all activities, particularly in the terms and conditions of engagement. That is, participants should know and see when and how their input is used through clear and accessible information with time for discussion about the implica- tions of the findings. Every effort must be made to provide opportunities for deliberative social learning about the credibility and accuracy of estimates of how projects will affect quality of life, public health, local environments, and economics to build trust and confidence in the data used to assess siting pro- posals. Participatory impact assessments lead to better project design and can strengthen perceptions of procedural justice. 273 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 273 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S Stakeholders who would otherwise be excluded from participation must be priori- tized for engagement as an equity measure. For example, WHEJAC, discussed above, convenes environmental and climate justice experts together to provide advice and input on policy development and implementation. Additionally, Indigenous Knowl- edge has recently been elevated in federal policy making. The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy and Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) have begun to institute this practice via statements, implementation and guidance memos, and establishment of the Subcommittee on Indigenous Knowledge (OSTP and CEQ 2021, 2022a,b). Included were strategies to grow and maintain relationships to sup- port Indigenous Knowledge, and practices and opportunities to apply Indigenous Knowledge in federal processes, including the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). These initiatives advance the inclusion of Indigenous people and their knowl- edge in impact assessment and siting processes. Additional initiatives that support innovative forms of engagement offered, including those discussed in Boxes 5-3 and 5-4 above, increase opportunities for meaningful engagement with key stakeholders. Rapid and expansive landscape changes driven by the amount of new industrializa- tion necessary for decarbonization will meet resistance from local and otherwise place-invested publics for a variety of complex reasons (Boudet 2019; Fergen et al. 2021; Nilson 2022; Sherren 2021). A 2023 public opinion poll (not peer reviewed) found that when biodiversity and land conservation is posed as a trade-off with rapid emissions reductions, a majority of Americans prefer a slower buildout (Meyer 2023). The growing frequency of newspaper stories about public resistance to renewable en- ergy projects in many parts of the country suggests resistance is likely to strengthen and calcify in key landscapes as the pace and scale of development accelerates (e.g., see Roth 2023; Saul et al. 2022; Stang 2022). Continued conflicts over the appropriate use of high-value farmland and rangeland, ecosystem values, the disruption of scenic and cultural amenities, economic uses of land, and individual private property rights are to be anticipated. This is especially true in the absence of robust public engage- ment efforts that seek to understand local sources of resistance and local input into the design of preferred and acceptable deployment strategies. Emerging technologies and the associated industrial infrastructure are particularly likely to meet public skepticism (Nielsen et al. 2022) as well as outright resistance from those parties with the least trust in the energy sector. For example, the environmental justice community continues to express concerns about carbon capture deployment17 (Anchondo 2022). Where the electric grid meets the built environment in key shared 17  See Chapters 2 and 3 and Appendix E for more information about the environmental justice concerns and health risks associated with carbon capture investments and other decarbonization technologies. 274 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 274 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract elements (e.g., electricity distribution lines, distributed generation, and EV charging), the pace and intensity of infrastructure additions may result in unacceptable or unde- sirable conditions. By extension, strong local resistance and/or inequitable outcomes may develop. A difficult feature of the contemporary environment for renewable energy deployment is exacerbation of conflicts through the rapid spread of misin- formation and uncertainty via social media (Fergen et al. 2021). This emphasizes the importance of proactive and generative public dialogues prior to and during project development and of authentic and reliable investments in building interpersonal relationships and trust. Beyond known best practices, there is a pressing need to ac- celerate and expand social science research about how to build trust in the context of contentious decisions. (See the section “Building the Nation’s Expertise in the Human Dimensions of Decarbonization” below.) Opportunities and Barriers in Current Policy Calls for more robust and innovative public engagement found in the social science literature on renewable energy project development seem at odds with widespread concern in public policy circles about the need to reduce permitting barriers through major policy reform. Legal scholars find that permitting processes for large-scale infra- structure are made burdensome by a lack of interjurisdictional alignment, the ensuing redundant and circular processes of both public participation and detailed environ- mental review, and their vulnerability to litigation by project opponents (Gerrard 2017; Ruhl and Salzman 2020). However, streamlining permitting in ways that short- cut public engagement is not a “silver bullet,” and calls for permitting reform need to be weighed against scholarship and expert commentary about where the problem really lies. Permitting professionals in many levels of government emphasize that it is not permitting regulations but understaffing and resource shortages that hinders the efficiency of permitting processes (Robinson 2022; Roth 2023). The dominance of decision frameworks that focus on a single measure (i.e., cost) also impede effective national and state siting decisions by minimizing the scope of review in ways that exclude meaningful public input (Kurth et al. 2017). If permitting reform includes significant reductions in meaningful opportunities for and forms of public engagement, then such reform would create a real risk of slow- ing, rather than hastening, the process of building out a net-zero infrastructure. Policy makers must simultaneously consider eliminating redundant and conflicting permit- ting policies and practice robust and creative engagement in project development and permitting. Whether public engagement innovation is mandated by statute or imple- mented as agency or private-sector priority, its efficacy will depend in large part on 275 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 275 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S available resources. These resources include subject-matter expertise and the capacity of participating parties, including project developers, public-sector regulatory bodies, and local and broader publics and civil society. An effective public engagement work- force for decarbonization includes public and community engagement professionals from utilities; community-advocacy groups; tribes; clean energy demonstration proj- ects; local, state, and federal agencies; and other relevant organizations and programs. Federal Actions The IRA directs funds to improve environmental review processes in multiple agency budgets, namely: $40 million for EPA to invest in more accurate and timely environ- mental reviews (§60115); $30 million for CEQ to improve stakeholder and commu- nity engagement (§60402); $100 million for the Federal Highway Administration to develop review documents and a process that provides for a timelier environmental review process (§60505); $350 million to accelerate and streamline the environmental review process (§70007); and nearly $500 million for the implementation of the NEPA to properly review proposed infrastructure projects (§23001, §40003, §50301, §50302, §50303). Furthermore, two important initiatives from the IRA require the incorpora- tion of innovative public processes into siting procedures: • Grants to Facilitate the Siting of Interstate Electricity Transmission Lines (§50152)—$760 million in grants for state and local governments for purposes including transmission project studies, examination of alternative siting cor- ridors, hosting negotiations with project backers and opponents, participating in federal and state regulatory proceedings, and promoting economic devel- opment in affected communities. • Interregional and Offshore Wind Electricity Transmission Planning, Modeling, and Analysis (§50153)—$100 million for expenses for convening stakeholders and conducting analysis related to interregional transmission development and development of transmission for offshore wind energy. Because of how broadly these two sections of the IRA are written, there is potential to support creative public processes, which could be used as pilots or test cases for innovation. Staffing and resources for environmental permitting and reviews remain inadequate. For many agencies, the additional funding for environmental permitting and reviews was only sufficient to address staffing losses that occurred under the previous admin- istration (Gordon 2022). At the same time, the IRA and IIJA will create an enormous volume of new permitting and public engagement work; hence, simply returning to 276 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 276 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract a previous baseline is not adequate to the task. And the resource shortage extends well beyond the federal government. As mentioned above, the federal agencies are promoting community benefits agreements as a new element in their loan and grant application reviews. Community benefits agreements must be developed using state- of-the-art engagement practices that build confidence, equity, and transparency. They also require that local governments and community-based organizations have access to legal expertise. Capacity and access falls deeply short in many companies, states, cities, and communities. Through the NEPA, federal agencies are required to provide opportunities for meaningful public participation. CEQ has developed documents guiding individuals through engagement processes (e.g., see CEQ and DOE n.d.) and providing clarity to federal agencies about compliance (e.g., see DOE-ONPC n.d.). Recent amendments to the NEPA included in the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023 (FRA 2023) (P.L. 118-5) contain the requirement that one federal agency coordi- nate with participating agencies in the development of a single NEPA document (Diller et al. 2023). 18 Additionally, FRA 2023 allows project sponsors to prepare an Environmental Assessment (EA) or Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) with lead agencies providing guidance. Given the focus on a lead agency status for complex EIS processes and the provision that developers can develop their own EISs, the need for public engagement workforce expertise to facilitate decarbon- ization is likely widespread. Non-Federal Actions Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), including grassroots organizations and national-level nonprofits, play an essential role liaising between the federal govern- ment and specific communities, especially communities that do not have the existing capacity to apply for or appropriately utilize available funding. Engagement with civil society leaders can produce decarbonization strategies that represent the priorities and concerns of communities. For example, the Union of Concerned Scientists con- vened an advisory committee to develop a holistic framework for decarbonization 18  TheFRA 2023 is the federal agreement to suspend the debt ceiling, but the legislation impacted multiple future federal actions, including the processes associated with the NEPA. In addition to the changes mentioned above, the FRA 2023 allows federal agencies to adopt categorial exclusions, categories of projects that do not need an EA and EIA—meaning federal agencies will be able to determine which projects do not have a significant impact on the environment without seeking public input on this categorization. This removal of a public engagement opportunity has the potential of having adverse impacts on the energy transition. For more information about the changes to the NEPA included in the FRA, see Diller et al. (2023). 277 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 277 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S that is equitable and just. The advisory committee identified three core principles for holistic approaches to a transformative energy transition: effectively address the impacts of the climate crisis; advance equity and justice; and drive systemic change (Baek et al. 2021). Policy recommendations from NGOs about decarbonizing the energy transition need to be reviewed and considered by policy makers at the federal, state, and local levels. The key feature of many reports produced by NGOs is a platform that brings together stakeholders to discuss transition pathways, what challenges may arise, and how to avoid or mitigate adverse outcomes. In addition to developing policy frameworks for state and national government, some non-federal actors are convening cross-sectoral stakeholders to develop local decarbonization strategies. For example, the Southwest Pennsylvania Decarboniza- tion (SWPD) Forum gathers to discuss critical opportunities and challenges of regional decarbonization in 10 counties within the state. These opportunities and challenges include creating jobs and driving economic growth; developing a healthy public and environment; supporting thriving and engaged communities; and facilitating innova- tion in technologies and infrastructure. The convening activities of the SWPD Forum are hosted by the Pennsylvania Environmental Counsel, which aims to be a model for im- plementing collaborative solutions (PEC n.d.), and the Allegheny Conference on Com- munity Development, which brings together Pittsburgh’s public- and private-sector leaders to define and mobilize regional and action (ACCD n.d.). Funding for the SWPD Forum comes from the Henry L. Hillman Foundation, whose goals include funding in- novative solutions that address community needs (Henry L. Hillman Foundation n.d.). As further discussed in Chapter 2, non-federal actors are critical to the development of multi-sectoral partnerships that connect local and state action with broader fed- eral funding and policy. Furthermore, these organizations can provide independent information about decarbonization and its trade-offs to protect the public from po- tential misinformation. These groups benefit from consistent, multi-year funding, and where federal funding is absent or insufficient, philanthropic foundations can provide needed support. Findings and Recommendations Capacity is not only a matter of having the personnel and know-how to implement state-of-the-art permitting processes or streamlining permitting for priority initiatives. Thus, enhanced permitting capacity will depend on an effort to integrate research, practice, and policy activities, and to coordinate across scales of government and within and across economic sectors—for example, the international and nationwide 278 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 278 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract coordination directed to the COVID-19 public health crisis demonstrated the needed urgency and dedication (Patnaik et al. 2023). Robust community and stakeholder engagement practices need those knowledgeable about diverse social science meth- ods of community engagement and existing inequalities and policy performance in energy equity collaborating with experts in law and public administration. Finding 5-7: The resources currently dedicated to building and strengthening pub- lic-sector capacity for permitting and environmental review at the federal, state, and local levels are not adequate to address public resistance that may well occur in the face of the extensive infrastructure deployment anticipated. Altogether, fric- tion in the public permitting arena has the potential to delay emissions mitigation and equity goals significantly. Finding 5-8: The United States currently lacks a sufficiently large or well-trained professional workforce to implement the full scope of public engagement activi- ties that public-sector, private-sector, and civil society organizations will need to undertake to achieve deep decarbonization. This is especially true for permitting and siting processes and for hosting inclusive policy dialogues and develop- ing robust strategies for ensuring a broad and impactful distribution of benefits from deep decarbonization for households and communities. It will be critical to use available funding to develop and implement new, creative precedents and practices to support the workforce needed for public engagement activities. Furthermore, public engagement professionals are essential to the success of the transition and need to be included systematically in federal energy workforce development planning and funding. Recommendation 5-5: Convene a National Working Group on Siting Process Innovation with Input from State Energy Officials. The Department of Energy and Council on Environmental Quality, with participation from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners, and National Association of State Energy Officials as appro- priate, should collaborate to convene a national working group on siting pro- cess innovation. The role of this working group will be to develop innovative public engagement practices for electricity generation and transmission fa- cility siting processes. These practices could be modeled on the International Energy Agency working groups and Canada’s Impact Agency public policies dialogues. It will be critical to incorporate adaptive management into the design of these public engagement practices to ensure that insufficient pro- cesses are removed or revised. The National Working Group on Siting Process 279 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 279 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S Innovation should provide recommendations that can inform the allocation of resources for a national public engagement workforce assessment. Recommendation 5-6: Mandate and Allocate Resources for a National As- sessment on the Public Engagement Workforce and Gaps. Congress should mandate and allocate resources for an interagency national assessment and subsequent Department of Energy (DOE) initiative focused on capacity gaps in the public engagement workforce. a. Congress should mandate a workforce assessment to be overseen by the National Climate Task Force (NCTF) with participation from academic experts, industry leaders, and public-sector representatives. The as- sessment should focus on future workforce needs in public processes for clean energy deployment and community advocacy organizations planning and impact assessment, including health, social, economic, and environmental impacts, with particular attention to the needs of utilities and large-scale energy developers in public engagement expertise. The assessment should also include the public engagement implications of recent amendments to the National Environmental Policy Act with a focus on where workforce investments are most critical. NCTF should make rec- ommendations for training programs to grow this workforce via multiple post-secondary pathways, with a focus on enabling current engagement professionals and students to train for and participate in clean energy deployment as quickly as possible. b. Through appropriations, Congress should direct DOE to establish an agency-wide workforce development initiative for public engagement in the energy transition, informed by the findings from the workforce assessment (5-6a). The Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs and the Regional Direct Air Capture Hubs may provide prime opportunities for pilot public engagement workforce initiatives that incorporate participants into its existing clean energy workforce development programs and demonstra- tion projects. The purpose of the initiative would be to advance com- munity-led energy and environmental justice initiatives, lead planning and organizational and cultural change for deep decarbonization, and help regions navigate the human complexities of clean energy transi- tions. Furthermore, workforce initiatives should include opportunities for place-based internships to deliver capacity for planning and fed- eral program access in under-resourced areas, potentially using DOE’s Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education fellowship program and 280 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 280 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract utilizing the AmeriCorps model. These internships would generate non- technical career opportunities that address the climate crisis for young professionals. c. DOE should fund legal clinics at public institutions to provide technical assistance for Community Benefit Agreement and other collective ben- efits negotiations. This would advance community-level engagement in decarbonization by providing equitable access to programs providing local benefits. Finding 5-9: The limited number of dedicated efforts to promote deployment by credible multi- and cross-sectoral partnerships—for example, between environ- mental NGOs, industry, finance, and government—is another notable capacity gap that is creating friction for clean energy deployment and openings for misin- formation and disinformation. Recommendation 5-7: Develop Collaborative Regional Renewable Energy De- ployment Plans. Civil society leaders should use available public and private resources to develop collaborative regional deployment plans for renewable energy. a. The philanthropic sector should immediately support the establishment of a set of pilot regional planning efforts, each focused on single renew- able energy technology and other relevant social and economic choices along the region’s path to net-zero emissions. The efforts should model robust, sustained, creative engagement and discourse around regional energy futures that include dimensions of the energy transition most salient to local stakeholders and publics. b. Civil society leaders should work with industry and government to deter- mine the best use of available land and resources for renewable energy deployment opportunities. This process will involve difficult trade-offs; engaging with and arriving at consensus about those trade-offs is a much-needed public exemplar of the spirit of compromise and determi- nation necessary to generate progress on climate mitigation. Finding 5-10: While legislative progress on statutes that enshrine “meaningful engagement” into the NEPA is stalled, there are opportunities to integrate these approaches as standard practice in private- and public-sector activities. Working groups and programs can be modeled after the Interagency Working Group on Indigenous Traditional Ecologic Knowledge to support the inclusion of specialized expertise in government policy and guidance. 281 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 281 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S Recommendation 5-8: Address the Priorities of Native American and Envi- ronmental Justice Communities. Congress and federal agency leads should address the priorities of Native American and environmental justice com- munities through legislation and, in the interim, purposeful adoption of best practices in meaningful engagement. a. Congress should pass legislation to codify “meaningful engagement” in environmental review practices. Furthermore, key federal actors in renewable energy and transmission deployment should include “mean- ingful engagement” practices in existing public engagement and envi- ronmental review processes, including providing many points of engage- ment (e.g., in time and across social groups) and materials in accessible forms (e.g., diverse languages), and requiring the consideration of alter- native actions. b. Federal program designers should involve social and behavioral re- searchers in the appropriate design of the social, behavioral, and other non-financial elements of deployment programs to enable communities to make informed technology adoption decisions and effectively use technologies to decarbonize, reduce energy consumption, save money, and obtain other additional benefits. BUILDING THE NATION’S EXPERTISE IN THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF DECARBONIZATION The Challenge Effectively engaging U.S. publics in clean energy transitions will require upgrading the nation’s expertise in the human dimensions of deep decarbonization. Doing public engagement well entails not only listening to people’s voices and concerns but also facilitating an informed dialogue about the aspects of the issues that are important to them (Reed et al. 2018). For energy transitions, this means developing a rich and contextualized understanding of the ways that decarbonization matters to people, impacts their lives and livelihoods, and intersects with other aspects of society, the economy, and the environment that they care about. The capability of the public, decision makers, and institutions to effectively understand these issues, assess their significance, and integrate them into decision-making at multiple scales will be crucial for the success of public engagement. Building the nation’s capacity for development and deployment will also require the ability to conduct credible, strategic assessments of outcomes for adaptive management (see Chapter 1). 282 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 282 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract Energy Literacy Energy is one of the most important elements of modern economies, yet also one of the least well understood by the public. This is true even with regard to knowledge about energy sources or how to conserve energy (Bodzin 2012; DeWaters and Powers 2011; Murphy 2002), let alone the more complex challenges of navigating sustain- able energy transitions (Martins et al. 2020). In this context, energy literacy19 goes well beyond basic knowledge of scientific and engineering principles of energy taught in K–12 classrooms and science museums. Few people in the United States have even a rudimentary understanding of energy sources, infrastructures, or security (van den Broek 2019). Frequently, the only source of public understanding of energy systems is often simplified news coverage of exciting new technology developments or contro- versies over power plant or infrastructure siting. Federal investment has prioritized improved public understanding and engagement in science and technology for non-energy topics, such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s fiscal year (FY) 2023 $144 million budget for educational pro- grams for the public at large. In comparison, the United States has invested relatively little in ensuring that people have the energy literacy needed to participate effectively in energy decisions. It should not be surprising, therefore, that U.S. consumers signifi- cantly underinvest in technologies that could considerably improve their household energy economics (Brent and Ward 2018) or that misinformation pervades public understanding of energy technologies and their ability to contribute to decarboniza- tion (Sovacool 2009). Misinformed understandings of the energy sector and systems undermine robust public engagement and the development and implementation of effective energy transition policies. Choices will need to be made to upgrade the efficiency of homes and businesses, electrify heating and transportation systems, and perhaps adopt dietary changes or new distributed energy technologies. Chadwick et al. (2022) show that knowledge is one of the most important factors influencing tech- nology adoption and rejection. Recent scholarship has highlighted the importance of adopting integrated social and technical framing of energy systems for decarbonization policy making (Miller et al. 2015). Interesting examples of this are Richard Scarry’s well-read children’s books about Busytown, which contain highly illuminative illustrations and stories about a coal mine and power plant and the people they serve with electricity (What Do People Do All Day? [1968]) and our automobile-intensive society (Cars and Trucks and Things 19  The understanding of the role and nature of energy in daily lives accompanied by the application of this understanding to solve problems (DOE n.d.(b)). 283 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 283 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S That Go [1974]). These books portray a rich picture of how people’s everyday lives and work are interdependent with energy technologies and infrastructures—and things that might be at stake in energy transitions, from the sector jobs to the organization of communities. Energy literacy education needs to follow this lead, not only for children but also in public engagement initiatives and for energy transition leaders across diverse sectors and organizations. Enhanced understanding among consumers—as well as the array of contractors, technicians, salespeople, and influencers they interact with—will be crucial to effec- tive household decision-making on decarbonized energy systems. States, cities, tribes, and communities will also benefit from improved energy literacy among residents and leaders as they face increasingly consequential choices about complex regional energy transitions (Miller et al. 2022). To make sense of the choices, decisions, and trade- offs entailed and their societal implications requires rich understandings of energy systems: who and what they serve, how they work, and their constraints in serving regional economies. For example, the National Science Foundation’s (NSF’s) Directorate for Social and Behavioral Sciences (SBE) Sciences, which had a budget of $286 million in FY 2022, supports research on human behavior and societal factors (NSF n.d.). Expe- riences from incorporation of social science and community engagement in interdis- ciplinary NSF research centers, funded through the SBE, could usefully inform energy programs (see Radatz et al. [2019]). Similar lessons might be drawn from the integra- tion of ethical, legal, and social research into the National Institutes of Health’s Human Genome Project (see Hilgartner et al. [2016] and McEwen et al. [2014]). Anticipatory Methods Recent scholarship has demonstrated the value of using anticipatory methods to examine the potential unanticipated impacts of new and emerging technologies (Guston 2014). Such methods use participatory public engagement to inform technol- ogy assessment, policy deliberation, and organizational decision-making (Kaplan et al. 2021) alongside other forward-looking analytic methods, such as responsible innova- tion (Stilgoe et al. 2013) and anticipatory and social life-cycle analysis (Fortier et al. 2019; Wender et al. 2014). Anticipatory methods expand insights into new technolo- gies beyond the limits of market-based technology adoption studies. This will be espe- cially valuable for informing energy transitions because technology adoption studies alone miss broader aspects of technology deployment that can slow decarbonization and lead to a range of risks and adverse social or economic outcomes. For example, strategic energy and environmental assessments using an anticipatory approach have 284 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 284 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract recently illuminated pathways for institutional reform and coordination that can facili- tate renewable energy deployment (Nwanekezie et al. 2022). Anticipatory methods attend to the dynamics created by new technologies that ripple outward from their construction and use via complex social and technological sys- tems. The consequences of these ripples are not intuitively obvious either from the perspective of the technology’s intended function and use or when used differently than their inventors and designers initially imagined (Oudshoorn and Pinch 2005). These human complexities are particularly significant for decarbonization planning, which anticipates rapid and near-universal adoption of new technologies by “average” people. However, these narrow assumptions fail to account for obvious asymmetries between users and contexts, between urban and rural users (Kline and Pinch 1996), or among users with and without disabilities (Wolbring 2008, 2011). Anticipatory analysis can also inform systems-level elements of the energy transition. Two examples in the electrification of light-duty transportation illustrate this phenomenon: • A lack of anticipatory analysis in technology development may result in the need to redesign the technology after deployment. For example, hybrid and electric vehicles are inherently nearly silent when operating at low speeds; a fact that many early EV purchasers appreciated but that created potential safety risks for pedestrians and other road users who could not hear them mov- ing. Redesign was necessary to adapt vehicles to real-world human contexts that initial designs had failed to consider by adding audible external sounds for the safety of pedestrians (e.g., see P.L. 111-373). Few assessments—especially involving robust public engagement—have rigorously explored how the het- erogeneity of vehicle use (among different kinds of users, as well as day-to-day for an individual user) matches the capabilities of EVs (e.g., see He et al. 2016). • The use of anticipatory analysis can allow for design of systems with preferred properties. For example, EV adoption is transforming vehicle supply chains resulting in new social and environmental consequences in the automobile manufacturing and repair sector, a major contributor to the U.S. and global economy. Anticipatory analyses are increasing being implemented to under- stand and predict how a shift to EVs will change the environmental, employ- ment, and consumer aspects of mineral and material resource requirements and manufacturing, and the servicing of vehicles (e.g., see Colato and Ice 2023; EIA 2021; Shrestha et al. 2022). A lack of anticipatory assessment and planning can lead to a slow pace of learning, incremental redesign, or less-than-near-universal adoption of key technologies, none 285 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 285 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S of which support the accelerated decarbonization of energy systems. Ambitious anticipatory assessment and engagement is critical to inform and modify technology design, development, and markets, as well as to help diverse people and communities learn about new technologies and understand their implications. Research and Inquiry Capabilities Developing new capabilities for research and inquiry into the complexities of energy transitions is important to inform inclusive policy deliberation and infrastructure siting (Sovacool et al. 2020). Areas where research capabilities can inform decarbonization planning include • Mobilizing and supporting people and organizations in implementing key de- carbonization strategies. The scale of effort required to achieve a net-zero economy is unprecedented—much of it will require significant organizational, workforce, and even behavioral change from individuals and households to entire industries. Research can identify the human and organizational changes needed and the strategies to advance them, evaluate outcomes, and enhance the sharing of good practices. Research can also identify and suggest strate- gies for reducing workforce shortages, inflation in the pricing of materials, and backlashes against social and environmental goal setting. • Evaluating the societal and economic implications of deep decarbonization. Many aspects of U.S. society and economy are organized around the ways energy is produced, distributed, and consumed. As a result, the consequences of adopting clean energy technologies and reconfiguring their manufacture and supplies will ripple outward into other areas of social and economic life and work. Research can help anticipate and comparatively evaluate trends and their potential implications for different groups, communities, and regions— especially for equity and justice considerations. • Anticipating vulnerabilities in interdependent infrastructure systems. People depend on energy systems to provide essential services for an array of critical infrastructures and systems, including food, water, transport, communication, manufacturing, and the built environment. While climate and disaster interde- pendencies among critical infrastructures receive careful attention, significantly less attention has been paid to vulnerabilities that might arise owing to energy transitions. Research can identify how the human and organizational dimen- sions of interdependent systems may exacerbate or reduce vulnerabilities cre- ated by technological dependencies. 286 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 286 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract Opportunities and Barriers in Current Policy The committee’s first report identified opportunities for Congress to invest in educa- tional and research programs focused on the knowledge and skills needed to imple- ment and manage the transition (NASEM 2021). The IIJA, IRA, and CHIPS and Science Act direct nearly $18 billion20 to career and skills training programs located at institutions of higher education. Several programs recommended in the first report, including $5 billion per year for the 10-year, GI Bill–type program and $100 million per year for the creation of innovative new degree programs, could be realized by the combined efforts of these three laws. However, support for workforce development in recent legislation focuses almost exclusively on applied science and engineering and less on the skills needed for an equitable and just energy transition. Outcomes will also likely be uneven given the heavy reliance on states to implement education and training programs. Workforce training will require additional support to drive innovation (see Chapter 4). Missing from current legislation is a key element in the committee’s prior recommen- dations: the explicit recognition that the United States needs to develop substantial knowledge, expertise, and workforces focused on higher-level understanding, analy- sis, and management of energy transitions, including among disciplines and sectors, and across research, application, and decision-making. This includes use-inspired research and training that intersects with technology development and deployment but focuses on the effective and equitable integration of technology into diverse societal, organizational, and market contexts. Such research areas include public and community engagement; the human and social dimensions of energy transitions; organizational change; interdisciplinary collaboration and convergence; energy policy and economics; the social and environmental impacts of technology; and energy and environmental equity and justice. Additionally, it is critical to assess methods in inter- disciplinary convergence and co-production of knowledge among researchers and diverse knowledge-users in industry, government, and society. To build this expertise, the committee’s first report recommended $50 million per year for interdisciplinary doctoral and postdoctoral training programs, similar to those funded by NIH; $375 million per year to support doctoral and postdoctoral fellowships in energy transitions, with at least 25 fellowships per state; and support for lowering barriers to non-U.S. researchers. In principle, such investments might be made via the new NSF Directorate for Technology, Innovation, and Partnerships (TIP), established 20  IIJA §40503, §40512, §40513, and §40521; IRA §60201; CHIPS and Science Act §10113, §10303, §10316, §10322, §10392, §10393, §10601, and §10745. 287 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 287 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S to “accelerate breakthrough technologies and solutions that address national-scale societal and economic challenges” with multidisciplinary, use-inspired research and collaboration that includes traditional and nontraditional players (NSF 2022; U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation 2022). TIP is unlikely to serve this goal, however, due to its focus on advancing breakthrough technologies rather than tackling the broader challenges of integrating technologies into diverse social and economic contexts to advance national goals, including decarbonization, social and economic inclusion, and equity and justice. Similarly, although the CHIPS and Science Act authorizes more than $13 billion in funding over 5 years for programs that include scholarships and fellowships,21 this investment focuses on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics and entre- preneurship rather than the social science research and education needed to facilitate improved transition management. Thus, despite substantial new investments in clean energy R&D, recent legislation and executive action continues to significantly underin- vest in efforts to understand and build knowledge and capacity relative to navigating the human complexities of the energy transition. This underinvestment risks repli- cating the misperception that the energy transition is a technological problem with social and economic dimensions rather than an integrated technological, social, and economic challenge. Findings and Recommendations Upgrading the nation’s expertise in the human dimensions of deep decarbonization will require innovative action by the federal agencies that invest in and regulate the energy sector. Fortunately, much of this will require only modest shifts in and inten- tional implementation of already appropriated funding. To date, however, federal agencies are largely unprepared to do this work, and while recent legislation has pro- vided extensive funding that could be leveraged for these purposes, the IRA, IIJA, and CHIPS and Science Act have not prioritized them. Finding 5-11: The United States has not yet implemented the expanded program of research into the human dimensions and complexities of energy transitions needed to inform effective decarbonization and public engagement strategies. This area represents a persistent gap in research portfolios. The committee high- lighted in its first report and recommended that Congress appropriate $25 million per year. Neither it nor an alternative is included in current policies. 21  CHIPS and Science Act §10113, §10303, §10316, §10322, §10392, §10393, §10601, and §10745. 288 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 288 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract Recommendation 5-9: Invest in and Integrate Social Science Research into Transition Decision-Making. The federal agencies whose research and de- velopment efforts impact the clean energy transition should invest in and integrate robust human dimensions and social science research into energy transition decision-making. a. The Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Science should establish an in- dependent research and graduate training program focused on the basic human and social sciences of energy, including economics and behavioral sciences, anthropology, sociology, and political science. This program would help develop a robust foundation of knowledge and expertise nec- essary to navigate the human complexities of energy transitions in the United States. The initial budget for this program should be $25 million annually and grow to $200 million by 2030. Representatives from the na- tion’s energy social sciences research community should design and lead the program’s research agenda. b. DOE, Department of Transportation, Department of Defense, Environ- mental Protection Agency, and National Science Foundation (NSF) should integrate human dimensions research and graduate training into clean energy technology research, innovation, and deployment programs. This should include the NSF Directorate for Technology, Innovation, and Part- nerships; DOE technology offices; and the new DOE Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations. Lessons from NSF’s prior experience integrating social science research into major science and engineering research centers should be used to guide this effort, as should research on anticipatory as- sessment and governance of emerging technologies. c. NSF and DOE should establish a network of 10 regional, university-led re- search centers to develop and apply fundamental new strategies for man- aging the social and technical dynamics of energy transitions. The research centers would draw together interdisciplinary teams of science, engineer- ing, and social science researchers with government, industry, and commu- nity stakeholders to apply anticipatory methods to the energy transition. Finding 5-12: The U.S. public is under-prepared and insufficiently educated to fully carry out the work required of them for the nation to achieve deep decarboniza- tion or to participate and engage effectively in deep decarbonization planning processes. Recommendation 5-10: Establish an Energy Systems Education Network. The Department of Energy and the Department of Education should establish 289 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 289 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S a 5-year, $50 million national energy science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) network for informal education and a parallel $50 million annual national energy STEM education program for K–12 schools. The focus of these initiatives should introduce students to (a) the organization, develop- ment, and operation of the energy cultures, infrastructures, and systems that underpin the U.S. economy; (b) the ways in which those infrastructures and systems are changing and will need to change to achieve deep decarboniza- tion; (c) the opportunities and challenges that decarbonization might pose; and (d) the ways that people can effectively participate in envisioning and guiding energy transitions. These initiatives should draw lessons from other large-scale, public STEM education initiatives, such as the National Science Foundation’s Nanoscale Informal Science Education Network and the recent National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s SciAct STEM Ecosystems project. CONCLUSION This chapter raises and attempts to address how to engage and mobilize the U.S. people in the project of deep decarbonization, which has to date received far too little attention from Congress, the White House, and federal agencies. The social contract for decarbonization is the shared understanding among all sectors and groups in society about the necessity of decarbonization, the willingness to deliberation and follow steps to get there, and the agreed-upon character of the transition. It hinges on decisions and actions taken now and over the next decade to enable people to meaningfully participate in envisioning, planning, and implementing the transition in ways that they judge fair, equitable, and beneficial. This includes strategies about how to imagine, design, and build energy systems with the public as well as policies that affect when, who, where, and how people will experience the everyday material reali- ties of decarbonization and its impacts on their livelihoods and their access to energy services. Although many of the features of recent policy initiatives create opportunities to engage and invest various publics in clean energy futures, there is a persistent mis- match between the scale of the decarbonization endeavor and the resources, capac- ity, and vision currently dedicated to mobilizing all the people of the United States to achieve deep decarbonization. Without additional resources and determined strate- gies, current public engagement efforts will be inadequate to preempt substantial public resistance to the pace and scale of systemic change necessary. Inadequate public engagement also curtails opportunities to advance creative, collaborative, and 290 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 290 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract place-based energy system designs and their many potential advantages for equitable deep decarbonization. Rather than being derailed by the complexity and enormity of the public engagement challenge, proponents of deep decarbonization can turn to the policies, practices, and investments reviewed and recommended here as actionable steps toward building a social contract. Recommendations in this chapter include commitments to a growth mindset about public engagement—including through significant investments in ap- plied social science research and a determination to engage the nation’s youth in the search for climate solutions. We can also turn to our history: in crucial moments in the past, determined and robust efforts helped the U.S. public understand the gravity of existential problems, our critical roles in tackling the challenges, and the benefits that we can achieve together as a nation. Public engagement for deep decarbonization is a task no less significant than that undertaken by President Franklin D. Roosevelt via his fireside chats to help the nation navigate the challenges of the Great Depression, pre- pare for the prospect of war, and come together as a nation to fight for freedom and democracy. The present challenge is no less existential, and the gravity of the public engagement task no less important. Table 5-2 summarizes the committee’s recom- mendations to support innovative public engagement in decarbonization. 291 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 291 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS ON PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT TO BUILD A STRONG SOCIAL CONTRACT FOR DEEP DECARBONIZATION TABLE 5-2a  Summary of Recommendations on Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract for Deep Decarbonization Actor(s) Overarching Responsible for Sector(s) Objective(s) Categories Short-Form Implementing Addressed by Addressed by Addressed by Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation 5-1: Encourage National Climate • Non-federal • Equity Ensuring Prospective, Task Force (NCTF), actors • Employment Procedural Equity Inclusive Dialogue Department of • Public in Planning at National and Energy (DOE), and engagement and Siting New Regional Levels Environmental Infrastructure and Protection Agency Programs (EPA) Building the Needed Workforce and Capacity 5-2: Accelerate Subnational • Non-federal • Equity Ensuring Equity, the Development, governments, actors • Public Justice, Health, Implementation, elected officials engagement and Fairness of Assessment, and and their Impacts Sharing of Energy representative Ensuring System Policy coalitions, federal Procedural Equity and Approaches partners in Planning That Deliver Local and Siting New Benefits Infrastructure and Programs 5-3: Fix Policy Congress and • Electricity • Equity A Broadened Gaps That state legislatures • Non-federal • Public Policy Portfolio Limit Role of actors engagement Ensuring Public Land in • Land use Procedural Equity Decarbonization in Planning and Siting New Infrastructure and Programs a The text in this table was changed during editorial review to improve clarity and alignment with information in other sections of the report. 292 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 292 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract TABLE 5-2  Continued Actor(s) Overarching Responsible for Sector(s) Objective(s) Categories Short-Form Implementing Addressed by Addressed by Addressed by Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation 5-4: Address State legislatures • Non-federal • Equity Ensuring Equity, Barriers to Local actors • Public Justice, Health, Benefits from engagement and Fairness of Renewable Energy Impacts Facilities Ensuring Procedural Equity in Planning and Siting New Infrastructure and Programs 5-5: Convene a DOE, Council on • Non-federal • Equity Ensuring National Working Environmental actors • Public Procedural Equity Group on Siting Quality, Federal • Electricity engagement in Planning Process Innovation Energy Regulatory and Siting New with Input from Commission, Infrastructure and State Energy National Programs Officials Association of Siting and Regulatory Utility Permitting Commissioners, Reforms for and National Interstate Association of Transmission State Energy Officials continued 293 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 293 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

A C C E L E R AT I N G D E C A R B O N I Z AT I O N I N T H E U N I T E D S TAT E S TABLE 5-2  Continued Actor(s) Overarching Responsible for Sector(s) Objective(s) Categories Short-Form Implementing Addressed by Addressed by Addressed by Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation 5-6: Mandate and Congress, DOE, • Electricity • Equity Ensuring Allocate Resources NCTF • Non-federal • Employment Procedural Equity for a National actors • Public in Planning Assessment engagement and Siting New on the Public Infrastructure and Engagement Programs Workforce and Siting and Gaps Permitting Reforms for Interstate Transmission Building the Needed Workforce and Capacity 5-7: Develop Civil society • Non-federal • Equity Ensuring Collaborative leaders and actors • Public Procedural Equity Regional philanthropic engagement in Planning Renewable Energy organizations and Siting New Deployment Plans Infrastructure and Programs Siting and Permitting Reforms for Interstate Transmission 294 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 294 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

Public Engagement to Build a Strong Social Contract TABLE 5-2  Continued Actor(s) Overarching Responsible for Sector(s) Objective(s) Categories Short-Form Implementing Addressed by Addressed by Addressed by Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation 5-8: Address the Congress and • Electricity • Equity A Broadened Priorities of Native federal program • Public Policy Portfolio American and designers engagement Ensuring Equity, Environmental Justice, Health, Justice and Fairness of Communities Impacts Ensuring Procedural Equity in Planning and Siting New Infrastructure and Programs 5-9: Invest in and DOE, Department • Non-federal • Equity Building the Integrate Social of Transportation, actors • Employment Needed Workforce Science Research Department of • Public and Capacity into Transition Defense, EPA, and engagement Research, Decision-Making National Science Development, and Foundation Demonstration Needs 5-10: Establish an DOE and • Electricity • Public Building the Energy Systems Department of • Buildings engagement Needed Workforce Education Education • Transportation and Capacity Network • Industry • Non-federal actors 295 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_CH05.indd 295 3/30/24 3:04 PM 

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