Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States: Technology, Policy, and Societal Dimensions (2024)

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

APPENDIX E Decarbonization Technologies and Related Equity and Justice Concerns Table E-1 describes a broad selection of technologies that may play a role in decarbonization, example equity and justice concerns specific to each technology, and potential methods to mitigate problems and amplify equity and justice. 758 A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_APPE.indd 758 3/16/24 4:03 PM 

TABLE E-1  Decarbonization Technologies, Their Description and Role in Decarbonization, Example Equity and Justice Concerns Specific to the Technology, and Potential Equity and Justice Amplifiers and Problem Mitigants Decarbonization Technology Description and Example Equity and Justice Potential Equity and Justice Technology Role in Decarbonization Concerns Specific to the Technology Amplifiers and Problem Mitigants Decarbonization Various technologies that reduce or Siting polluting infrastructure in Develop projects that improve well-being technologies in eliminate emission of greenhouse disadvantaged communities. of disadvantaged communities and that general—apply to all gases (GHGs) or remove GHGs from engage community members in decision- Participatory justice. below technologies the atmosphere. making about projects that impact them. Community benefits. Follow all existing air and water Workforce opportunities. pollution regulations, permits, and other requirements. A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_APPE.indd 759 Point source carbon Point source carbon capture Local air and water emissions from Implement technologies that capture capture (fossil prevents some or all of the carbon the technologies used to capture the a greater portion of both GHG and fuel combustion dioxide from being released carbon dioxide, such as emissions from non-GHG air quality emissions, such emissions) by a combustion facility, such the power source, and from amine or as processes with extensive gas as a power plant, by capturing other capture chemicals. pretreatment or precombustion the carbon and then using or capture. Continuation of local air and water storing it. The capture may pollution from the entire fossil fuel life be from the waste gas from cycle, even though GHG emissions are combustion (post-combustion), reduced or eliminated. or it may involve transformation of the inputs to remove carbon Opportunity cost: Investing in a before combustion and prevent nascent technology that allows formation of CO2 (precombustion). polluting facilities to continue This technology may be required operation and that may not be to mitigate emissions from some implemented to remove GHG fossil fuel combustion facilities emissions at scale. where there is not a zero-emission alternative. 759 continued 3/16/24 4:03 PM 

TABLE E-1 Continued 760 Decarbonization Technology Description and Example Equity and Justice Potential Equity and Justice Technology Role in Decarbonization Concerns Specific to the Technology Amplifiers and Problem Mitigants Point source carbon Carbon capture prevents some or Local air and water emissions from Implement technologies that capture capture (industrial all of the carbon dioxide from being the technologies used to capture the a greater portion of both GHG and process emissions) released by an industrial process, carbon dioxide, such as emissions from non-GHG air quality emissions, such such as the chemical reactions that the power source, and from amine or as processes with extensive gas make cement or steel from ores, other capture chemicals. pretreatment or precombustion or that form ethanol from biomass capture. Continuation of local air and water fermentation by capturing the pollution from the industrial process carbon and then using or storing it. or other associated processes, even This technology may be required A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_APPE.indd 760 though GHG emissions are reduced or to mitigate emissions from some eliminated. industrial facilities if it is not possible to replace the product or process with a non-emitting substitute. Direct air capture Direct air capture (DAC) is Local air and water emissions from Create separate targets for emissions composed of industrial facilities the technologies used to capture the reductions and removals, to ensure that that process air from the carbon dioxide, such as emissions from both are pursued concurrently. atmosphere to remove some of the power source, and from amine or the CO2. The CO2 can then be other capture chemicals. used or stored. DAC can remove Opportunity cost: Local air and water emissions that are already present emissions from the processes that led in the atmosphere. to the GHG emissions being captured from the atmosphere, if DAC enables the continuation of those processes. Opportunity cost: Investing in a nascent technology that allows polluting facilities to continue operation and that may not be implemented to remove GHG emissions at scale. 3/16/24 4:03 PM 

Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide utilization Local pollution from the facilities that Mitigate the impacts on GHG and local utilization transforms CO2 into useful transform the carbon dioxide into a pollutant emissions from the full life cycle products. It may be used in a product. of the carbon dioxide utilization product. net-zero future to provide needed Opportunity cost: GHG emissions and Place restrictions on where and when carbon-based products without local pollution from the use of the synthetic fuels can be used, to limit GHG emissions, or to produce product created by carbon dioxide exposure of disadvantaged communities materials that act as long-term utilization, such as combustion of a to combustion pollutant emissions, such carbon storage. synthetic fuel. as limiting to use in aviation, rather than on-road or off-road vehicles. Solar and wind Solar and wind electricity- Siting without community Participatory siting. electricity generation generating facilities collect energy participation. Development of community benefits, A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_APPE.indd 761 from the sun or the wind and Lack of community benefits. including community ownership of convert it to electric power. As zero-carbon electricity generation. compared to some other net-zero Pollution throughout the life cycle of the facilities, they can occupy a large generation facilities, including inputs, Reuse, recycling, and/or planned land area. manufacture, use, and disposal of the disposal of used generating equipment. generating equipment, particularly waste disposal of solar panels and wind turbines, blades, and towers. Electric transmission Transmission lines move electric Preferential siting in disadvantaged Participatory siting. power between areas of high communities. Development of community benefits. generation to areas of high Lack of community benefits. demand. New technologies for When planning electric system decarbonization will likely require Lack of participatory justice. investments, consider the benefits of increased electricity use and electric systems with fewer transmission changes in locations of generation requirements, especially those that may and demand. have enhanced resiliency, including energy storage. continued 761 3/16/24 4:03 PM 

TABLE E-1 Continued 762 Decarbonization Technology Description and Example Equity and Justice Potential Equity and Justice Technology Role in Decarbonization Concerns Specific to the Technology Amplifiers and Problem Mitigants Pipelines Pipelines move materials such Preferential siting in disadvantaged Participatory siting. as gaseous and liquid fuels and communities. Development of community benefits. chemicals between sources Lack of community benefits. Consider the environmental justice and end users. Pipelines may benefits of colocation of the producers be developed to move CO2, Lack of participatory justice. and users of a commodity, which hydrogen, or synthetic fuels for Safety risks, especially with pipeline may prevent the need for pipelines, decarbonization. leaks or failures. although it may increase the Opportunity cost: Indirectly enabling concentration of polluting facilities A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_APPE.indd 762 technologies with pollutant emissions, into fewer, more greatly impacted such as fossil fuel use, to make communities. hydrogen. Mining Some decarbonization Local air and water pollution from Develop and implement resource technologies will require mining and mineral extraction. extraction technologies that are less increased development and use polluting for nearby communities. of mineral resources, which will Develop recycling technologies that increase mining requirements allow reuse of already mined material, in some communities, although and avoid mining of new, virgin the mining and other resource material. extraction requirements for production of coal, oil, and natural Participatory siting. gas will decrease. Development of community benefits. 3/16/24 4:03 PM 

Biomass and biofuels Biomass and biofuels growth Local air and water pollution from Develop and implement biomass consumes CO2 from the farming and processing. production technologies that are less atmosphere. If all upstream polluting for nearby communities. Opportunity cost: Local air and water process inputs like fertilizers can pollution from combustion of biofuel Place restrictions on where and when be made net-zero emissions, products or disposal or decay of other biofuels can be used, to limit exposure then the carbon in the product biobased products. of disadvantaged communities to made from biomass, like a biofuel, combustion pollutant emissions, such is considered renewable. If the as limiting to use in aviation, rather than product is combusted or decays, on-road or off-road vehicles. it is net-zero carbon. In some circumstances, a long-lived product can be made, which—if A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_APPE.indd 763 stored for the long term—may result in net-negative carbon. Hydrogen Hydrogen is a zero-carbon energy Hydrogen combustion produces some Prioritize hydrogen produced from production and use carrier. It can be made from local air pollutants like nitrogen oxides. electrolysis with zero-carbon electricity as an energy carrier natural gas coupled to carbon over production from fossil materials Hydrogen generation, transport, and capture and storage or can be like natural gas with carbon capture. storage introduce safety concerns for generated through electrolysis those in very close proximity. Participatory siting. with zero-carbon electricity inputs. It produces no CO2 when Development of community benefits. used in a fuel cell or combusted. Implement safety mitigants for communities that include hydrogen generation, transportation, and storage or use infrastructure. continued 763 3/16/24 4:03 PM 

TABLE E-1 Continued 764 Decarbonization Technology Description and Example Equity and Justice Potential Equity and Justice Technology Role in Decarbonization Concerns Specific to the Technology Amplifiers and Problem Mitigants Nuclear power Nuclear power uses the energy Local air and water pollution from Significant public engagement at local generation in radioactive materials to power uranium mining, milling, and and national levels. generation of electricity. Nuclear processing, and mining waste disposal. Participatory siting for reactors and fuel power generation facilities Air, water, and radiation pollution risk cycle facilities, including waste disposal have very low GHG and criteria from accidents during nuclear power sites. air pollutant emissions while production. operating. Development of community benefits. Air, water, and radiation pollution Develop and implement resource risk from processing, storage, extraction technologies that are less A00026--Accelerating Decarbonization in the United States_APPE.indd 764 transportation, disposal, and long- polluting for nearby communities. term management of spent nuclear fuel and other radioactive wastes Local, state, and federal regulatory (low-level, greater than Class C, and processes for reactor and fuel cycle high-level). facilities. Mitigation of legacy uranium pollution. 3/16/24 4:03 PM