Index
A
Abuja, Nigeria
drugs purchased in, 317
summit, 49, 50, 52, 76, 198, 318
ACAME, 119
ACT. See Artemisinin combination therapy
ACTMalaria. See Asian Collaborative Training Network for Malaria
Adangbe people, 209
Adaptable Program Loans and Credits. See World Bank
Adults, malaria in, 154–155
Africa, malaria in, 24, 25, 168–177
African Demographic Surveillance Systems (DSS), 172
African Development Bank, 49, 105
African Development Fund, 105
African Summit on HIV/AIDS, 52
Algeria, 128
Amazon Malaria Initiative (AMI), 237
American Civil War, 126
Amodiaquine, 219, 253, 254, 291, 308
Amoy, 129
Anemia, 149, 150–151, 205, 292
Annan, Kofi, 52
Anopheles albimanus, 141
Anopheles arabiensis, 210
Anopheles culicifacies, 210
Anopheles funestus, 172, 202, 207, 209
Anopheles gambiae, 141, 198, 202, 211, 212
Anopheles mosquitoes, 126, 128–129, 140–144
Antifolate drugs, 253, 259–260, 291–292, 309
Antimalarial drugs
affordability issues, 61–62
availability, 42–45
cost and effectiveness, 61, 66–67
counterfeit and poor quality, 317
drug classes, 253–259
drug flows, 34–42
drug policy, 235
effective use of, 312–315
epidemics and, 233
global costs, 64–65
global subsidy, case for, 79–82, 84–96, 100
labeling and instructions, 317–318
milestones in, 130–131
pricing of, 34
procuring, international system for, 112–121
reduction in malaria transmission, 212–213
resistance, 172, 270–272, 276–281
safe and user-friendly, 315–316
tiered pricing, 65
APLs. See World Bank, Adaptable Program Loans and Credits
Apovia, 224
Artecef, 306
Artemether-lumefantrine.
See also Coartem
malaria control, 214–215
treatment of malaria, 254, 257
Artemisia annua, x, 6, 12, 62, 81
Artemisinin combination therapy (ACT)
affordability issues, 61–62
availability, 42
clinical experience with, 263
cost-effectiveness, 66–67, 70–71
delaying emergence of resistance, xi, 4–5
discoveries in, 133–134
economic considerations, 5–6
effects, 70
evidence base for, 264–265
as first-line treatment, 3, 79, 80
global costs, 64–65
global subsidy for, 6–10, 82–83, 86–110, 121, 169, 315
negative impact of—use, 84–85
priming market for, 6
production costs, 62–64
purchase of, 52
role in malaria control, 22–23, 214–215
stimulating—market, 81
treatment models, 67–74
Artemisinins, 261–262
basic properties, 255
botanical properties, 262
clinical experience with, 263
mechanisms of action, 262–263
resistance to, 275–276
safety during pregnancy, 268–269
toxicity of, 266
Artemisone, 308
Artemotil, 306
Artesunate
artemisinins, 261–262
described, 265–266
drug class, 253
first-line drug, 43
national drug policy on, 235
public sector drug flows, 38
R&D, 307–309
social marketing, 41
treatment of malaria, 254, 257
wholesale prices, 63
Aristophanes, 125
Aristotle, 125
Aryl aminoalcohol compounds, 253
Asia, malaria in, 24–25
Asian Collaborative Training Network for Malaria (ACTMalaria), 237
Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry, 47–48, 303
Atabrine (quinacrine, mepacrine), 131
Ataxia, 153
Atovaquone plus proguanil, 253, 255, 258, 294, 306.
See also Malarone
Australia, 99
Austria, 105
B
Bacillus sphaericus (Bsph), 211
Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti), 211
Bagamoyo District, Tanzania, 59, 175, 176, 209
Bamako, Mali, 43
Bandafassi, Senegal, 175
Bastianelli, Giovanni, 129
Bayer, 308
Bayer Dye Works, 131
See also Insecticide-treated nets
Behavioral deficits, 153
Benin, 98
Bhutan, 236
Bignami, Amico, 129
Billiton Corporation, 182
Biologic management, 211
Biotech Australia Pty, 224
Blantyre coma scale, 152
Bleeding, abnormal, 149
Blindness, 153
Blister packaging, 316
Blood schizont, 138
Bolton, Dr., 179
BOMA. See Burden of Malaria in Africa
Brain damage, 153
Brazzaville, Congo, 177
Brisbane, Australia, 224
British Indian Medical Service, 128
British Medical Association, 129
British Medical Journal, 129
British Petroleum, 229
Bruce-Chwatt, Leonard, 169
Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 49
Bsph. See Bacillus sphaericus
Bti. See Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis
Burden of Malaria in Africa (BOMA), 169, 170, 172–173
Burkina Faso, West Africa
drug packaging, 316
genetic control, 212
ITN use, 203–205
microeconomic studies, 187
per capita health expenditures, 98
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
vaccines, 223
tax revenues, 97
Burma
ACT use, 213
chloroquine resistance, 276
counterfeit drugs, 317
drug packaging, 316
malaria transmission, 263
observations in pregnant women, 268
RDTs, 222
C
Calabar Hospital, 177
Calcutta, India, 129
California Gold Rush, 127
Cambodia
ACT as first-line therapy, 236
availability of antimalarials, 43
Central Medical Stores, 39
chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132
drug financing, 45
economic and health indicators, 35
fake antimalarials, 33
health education messages, 320
illegal drug flows, 42, 93, 317
low-income country, 101
malaria in, 34
migration, 232
Ministry of Health Procurement, 45
Phnom Penh, 42
piperaquine, 294
private sector drug flows, 41
public sector drug flows, 38–39, 39
RDTs, 222
Cambodian National Malaria Center (CNM), 38
Cambodian Pharmaceutical Enterprise, 38
Cameroon
chloroquine resistance, 280
malaria control, 229
microeconomic studies, 184
per capita health expenditures, 98
pyronaridine, 294
tax revenues, 97
Cape Verde, 98
Carbon taxes, 100
Caventou, Jean Biename, 130
Cerebral malaria, 152–151
Celli, Angelo, 129
Central African Republic, 98
Centralized procurement system, 9–10, 13
Ceylon, 130
Chalcones, 309
CHAZ. See Churches Health Association of Zambia
Chemoprevention, 212–219
Chemoprophylaxis
children, 216–217
obstacles to targeted—, 217–218
recommendations for use, 50
Children
chemoprophylaxis in, 216–217
intermittent preventive therapy. See Intermittent preventive therapy, children
malaria in, 148–150
mortality, 174, 176, 198, 203–204
severe malaria, 154–155
China
ACT as first-line therapy, 236
artemisinin use, 133, 262, 266, 268
ITN programs, 203
major initiatives, 46
middle-income country, 101
piperaquine, 294
Plasmodium vivax, 157
pyronaridine, 294
Chinese Medical Journal, 133
Chloroproguanil, 253, 291, 303
Chloroquine
availability, 42
basic properties, 255
change to other treatments, 72–74
description, 291
discoveries in, 131–132
plus primaquine, 216
pregnancy, 217
resistance, 1, 3, 19, 22, 32, 74, 80, 172, 256–257, 260–261, 273, 275–276
-resistant P. falciparum (CRPF), 131
treatment of uncomplicated malaria, 254
Chronic neurologic impairment, 153
Churches Health Association of Zambia (CHAZ), 40–41, 45
Cinchona cultivation, 130
Climate change and epidemic malaria, 231
CNM. See Cambodian National Malaria Center
Coartem.
See also Artemether-lumefantrine
adoption, 235
expense of companion drug, 62
R&D, 303
toxicity, 266
Cognitive deficits, 153
Combination therapy. See Artemisinin combination therapy
Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, 66, 75–77, 84
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), 42
Competition in retail drug market, 94
Consciousness, impaired, 149, 150
Coordinated Informed Buying, 119
Cote d’Ivoire, 98
Cotrimoxazole, 291
CRHCS. See East and Southern Africa Commonwealth Regional Health Community Secretariat
Cropper, M.L., 191
“Cross border” traders, 42
CRPF. See Chloroquine, -resistant P. falciparum
Curtis, C. F., 212
D
DALY. See Disability adjusted life-year
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 211, 317
DEET. See N,N-diethyl-m toluamide
Deforestation and malaria, 126
Deltamethrin, 201
Democratic Republic of the Congo. See Congo
Demographic effects, 181
Denmark, 41, 105, 120, 126, 224
DHA. See Dihydroartemisinin
DHFR. See Dihydrofolate reductase-thymidilate synthase
DHPS. See Dihydropteroate synthase Diagnosis, 32, 219–223
N,N-Diethyl-m toluamide (DEET), 211
Dihydroartemisinin (DHA), 253, 261–262, 307
Dihydrofolate reductase-thymidilate synthase (DHFR), 259, 279–280
Dionisi, Antonio, 129
“Dipstick” diagnostic test, 41, 43, 84–85
Disability adjusted life-year (DALY), 66–67, 66n. 6, 70
Disease Control Priorities Project, 170
DNA for diagnosis, 223
DNDi. See Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative
Doxycycline, 306
Drug administration, mass, 213, 216
Drug classes, 253–254
pharmacodynamics, 258
pharmacokinetics, 254–255, 258
Drug financing, 43–45
private sector, 40–41
public sector, 35–39
Drug ineffectiveness, 32–33, 276–281
Drug market, competition and regulation, 94
Drug policies and malaria control, 233–238
Drug pressure, 72
Drug procurement
bulk, 120
centralized procurement organizations, 113–114, 117–118
distribution, 114–115
forecasting demand, 114
intellectual property issues, 117
market stimulation, 116
minimizing ACT monotherapy, 115
monitoring and evaluation, 117
prices and competition, 114
quality assurance, 116
strategies, 118
technical assistance, 116–117
Drug resistance.
See also specific drugs
antifolate drugs, 259–260
antimalarial drugs, 261, 276–281
artemisinins, 275
chloroquine, 260–261
development of artemisinins, 3
drug pressure, 72
effects, 172
global subsidy and—, 80–81
need for combination therapy, 4–5, 73–74
patterns of, 175
Plasmodium falciparum, 198, 273–275
—strains, 73
Drugs. See Antimalarial drugs;
specific drugs
Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi), 303, 308
DSS. See African Demographic Surveillance Systems;
Rufiji Demographic Surveillance Site
Duffy blood group antigen, 157
Dutch East Indies, 130
E
EANMAT. See East African Network for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments
Early treatment failures (ETF), 279
East Africa, 172
East African Network for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments (EANMAT), 237
East and Southern Africa Commonwealth Regional Health Community Secretariat (CRHCS), 119
East Timor, 232
Economic considerations, 177–179
artemisinins and ACT, 5–6
cost of artemisinin treatments, 1
effects at macroeconomic level, 180–181
estimates of costs, 180
health policy and, ix
hindering economic development, 90–91, 181–182, 187–194
overcoming barriers, 313–315
priming market for ACT, 6
studies, microeconomic, 183–184
Education
family decision makers and traditional healers, 321–323
health—messages, 320
health professionals, 322
school-based, 323–324
training shopkeepers, 320–321
EIR. See Entomologic inoculation rate
El Niño Southern Oscillation, 231
Emergency Multisector Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project, 103
EMVI. See European Malaria Vaccine Initiative
Entomologic inoculation rate (EIR), 144, 198
Environmental strategies, xii, 2, 11, 211
EPI. See Expanded Programme on Immunization
Epidemic malaria, 230–231
Epilepsy, 153
Equatorial Guinea, 98
Eritrea, 98
ETF. See Early treatment failures
Ethiopia
home treatment, 319
malaria early warning systems, 233
microeconomic studies, 185
migration, 232
per capita health expenditures, 98
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
Tigray study, 191–194
European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership, 310
European Malaria Vaccine Initiative (EMVI), 47
Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI), 226
F
Falciparum malaria infections, x, 1, 126, 147–148
Family decision makers, educating, 321–323
Far Manginhos, 308
FDA. See United States, Food and Drug Administration
Feachem, Richard, 49
Field’s stain, 220
Finland, 105
Fluorescent microscopy, 221
Food and Drug Administration. See United States, Food and Drug Administration
Foreign direct investment, 181–182
Formosa, 129
Fosmidomycin, 308
Franco-Prussian War, 127
Frerichs, Friedrich Theodor, 128
Fumigants, 211
Funding.
See also Global subsidy
available, defined, 106–107
government expenditures, 185
household expenditures, 184–185, 193
international, 2
potentially available, defined, 106–107
projected financing for global control, 76–78
G
G6PD deficiency. See Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
Gambia
ACT, evidence base, 264
aromatic smoke, 211
chloroquine resistance, 280
home treatment, 319
ITN use, 198, 203, 204, 205, 229
per capita health expenditures, 98
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
study of pregnant women, 269
tax revenues, 97
Gametocytes, 139
Garnham, P. C. C., 129–130
Gates Foundation, Bill & Melinda
bilateral donor, 105
boost in funding from, 46
contributions to R&D, 75–76, 304
grant to MVI, 47
study cosponsor, 20
GAVI. See Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization
GDF. See World Health Organization, Global Drug Facility
Ge Hang, 133
Genetic control, 212
Genetic diversity, 137
Ghana
artesunate, 265
child mortality, 203–205
chloroquine treatment, 32
drug packaging, 316
educating family decision makers, 321
educating health professionals, 321
IPTi trials, 219
ITN use, 209
Navrongo, 228
overcoming economic barriers to treatment, 313
per capita health expenditures, 98
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
Giemsa’s stain, 220
GlaxoSmithKline (GSK)
chlorproguanil-dapsone, 303
chlorproguanil-dapsone-artesunate, 307
malaria vaccines, 224
quinoline antimalarial, 308
tafenoquine, 310
WRAIR malaria drug development collaborator, 306
Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization (GAVI), 47, 76, 112, 120
Global Drug Facility. See World Health Organization
Global Forum for Health Research, 303, 304
Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
bilateral donor, 105, 118, 234
Country Coordinating Mechanisms, 104
endorsement of combination therapy, 5
funding source, 8, 75, 76, 77, 80, 101, 102, 104
benefits of, 95–96
centralized procurement system, 9–10, 13, 121
country-specific vs.—, 102–104
difficulties, 84–86
funding, 8, 9, 75–76, 86, 88–89, 96–97, 98–102, 104–107, 169
level required, 109–110
R&D, 74–75
recommendations, 12–13
sources of, 110
types of, 88–91
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, 147
Golgi, Camillo, 128
Goodman, C., 94
Grassi, Giovanni Battista, 129, 202
Greece, 126
GSK. See GlaxoSmithKline
Guinea Population and Reproductive Health Program, 103
H
Haldane, J.B.S., 146
Halfan, 306
Halofantrine
absorption and elimination, 255, 358
aryl aminoalcohol compounds, 253
described, 293
R&D, 306
resistance, 261
Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments (Ge Hang), 133
Health burden of malaria, 168
drug resistance, 172
hospital-based studies, 176–177
population-based studies, 175
trends, 172–175
Health care facilities
conditions of, 33
evidence, 176–177
Senegal, 36
supply of antimalarials, 32
treatment of severe malaria, 254
Zambia, 44–45
Health care spending, 96–97
Health education, 320
Health professionals, educating, 322
Hemiplegia, 153
Hemoglobin C, 147
Hemoglobin E, 147
Hemoglobin S gene, 127
Hempel, J., 179
Herodotus, 202
Higher Impact Adjustment Lending, 103
Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC), 107
Hippocrates, 125
Historical estimates of costs, 179
HIV/AIDS
combining drugs for treatment, 4
costs for treatment, 9
external support for control, 75
funding sources for treatment, 105
global market for drugs, 86
informed buying of drugs, 119–120
malaria and, 156–157
price discrimination for drugs, 65
HMS. See Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly
Ho Chi Minh, 133
Holleykin, 307–308
Homer, 125
Hospital-based evidence. See Health care facilities, evidence
Host genetics, 146–147
House siting and construction, 210
Household
expenditures on prevention, 184, 193
expenditures on treatment, 184–185, 193
living standards, 182–183
Humanitarian rationale, 80
Hyperlactatemia, 149
Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly (HMS), 158
Hypoglycemia, 149, 150, 154, 269
I
IDA. See World Bank, International Development Association
IFPMA. See International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Associations
I.G. Farben, 131
Illegal drug flows, 41–42
Illiad, The (Homer), 125
IMCI. See Integrated management of childhood illness
Imidazolinedione derivatives, 309
In vitro testing, 278
In vivo testing, 273, 274, 276–279
India
Bsph toxin, 211
Calcutta, 129
chloroquine resistance, 276
cinchona plantations, 130
control programs, 234
DDT use, 198
mosquito nets, 203
pharmaceuticals from, 36
R&D, 308
user fees, 100
Indoor residential spraying. See Insecticide spraying, indoor residential
Infants, intermittent preventive therapy. See Intermittent preventive therapy, infants
INNs. See International Nonproprietary Names
Insecticide spraying
indoor residential (IRS), 11, 144, 199, 206–207
Insecticides, 200–202
Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs).
See also Bednets
Abuja Summit target, 50
history of, 202–203
individual and community effects of, 203–209
social marketing of, 56
Institut Pasteur, 224
Institute of Lausanne, 224
Institute of Medicine (IOM)
Committee on the Economics of Antimalarial Drugs, 19, 51, 113
Insurance programs, 100
Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI), 56, 77, 220, 324
Intellectual property issues, 117
Intermittent preventive therapy (IPT)
children (IPTc), 219
pregnant women (IPTp), 56, 77, 218–219
SP and, 22
strategy, 324
TEHIP study, 56–60
International Development Association. See World Bank
International Dispensary Association, 40
International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Associations (IFPMA), 47, 303
International Finance Corporation, 12
International funding, 2
International Nonproprietary Names (INNs), 40
International organizations and health
See also specific organizations
IOM. See Institute of Medicine
IPT. See Intermittent preventive therapy
IPTc. See Intermittent preventive therapy, children
IPTi. See Intermittent preventive therapy, infants
IPTp. See Intermittent preventive therapy, pregnant women
Ireland, 105
Irian Jaya, 231
IRS. See Insecticide spraying, indoor residential
Iteso, 323
ITNs. See Insecticide-treated nets
J
Jacobus Pharmaceuticals, 309
Japan, 105
Jaundice, 149
Jomaa Pharmaceuticals, 308
K
Kafue, Zambia, 44
Karen, Thailand, 227
Kdr. See Knock-down resistance
Kenya
ACT, evidence base, 264
Anopheles gambiae, 202
antimalarial drug resistance, 271
azithromycin clinical trials, 310
childhood mortality, 173
chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132, 235
climate change, 231
drug policy, 235
home treatment, 318
hospital-based studies, 177
IPTi trials, 219
Kisumu, 207
malaria early warning system, 233
malaria treatment survey, 33
migration, 232
pharmaceuticals from, 36
productivity costs, 188–189
school-based education, 232
total direct and indirect costs, 187
training, 320-321
urban malaria, 230
Kenya Medical Research Institute, 224, 235
Kilombero, Tanzania, 94
Kinshasa, Congo, 177
Kisumu, Kenya, 207
Knock-down resistance (kdr), 202
Koch, Robert, 213
Konkola Copper Mines, 229
KwaZulu Natal, South Africa
ACT as first-line therapy, 229, 236
DDT house spraying, 207
drug policy, 235
epidemic, 172
Ingwavuma district, 214
morbidity and mortality, 214–215
L
Labeling and instructions, 317–318
Lariam, 306
Larvivorous fish, 211
Late clinical failures (LCF), 279
Laveran, Charles Louis Alphonse, 127–128
Ledger, Charles, 130
Lee, J.W., 120
Lesotho, 98
Liberia, 98
LICA Pharmaceuticals, 309
LICUS. See Low Income Countries Under Stress Initiative
Light microscopy, 220–221
Lincoln, Abraham, 126
Linnaeus, Carl, 130
Liver schizont, 138
Living standards, 174, 182–183
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, 130
Low Income Countries Under Stress Initiative (LICUS), 103, 105
Lugo, Juan de, 130
Lumefantrine, 62, 253, 255, 258, 294
M
Macdonald, G., 144
Macrolides, 309
Madagascar, 96, 97, 98, 146, 207
Magic spells, 30
Malaria
cerebral, 152–151
clinical, 252–253
control, 197–238
cost of illness, 192
current situation, 2–4, 19–21, 23–24, 26–27
economic burden of, 177–194
health burden of, 168–177
historical estimates of costs, 179
history of discoveries, 125–127
immunity, 144–147
integrated control of, 11
medicines and supplies service, 120–121
mortality rates, 2, 19, 169, 170, 172–175, 174, 176, 198, 203–205
pathogenicity, 144
recrudescence, 140
recurrent, 140
severe, 256–257
symptoms, 27
transmission, 212–213
treatment. See Treatment
uncomplicated, 254
urban, 230
Malaria early warning systems (MEWS), 232–233
Malaria Medicines and Supplies Service, 120–121
Malaria Vaccine Initiative (MVI), 47
Malawi
antimalarial drug resistance, 270, 271
chloroquine resistance, 132
drug policy, 235
HIV, malaria, and pregnancy, 157
hospital-based evidence, 176–177
household expenditures on prevention and treatment, 184
indirect costs, 185
IPT, 218
migration, 232
per capita health expenditures, 98
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
total direct and indirect costs (of malaria), 186
Malaya, 132
Malignant tertian malaria. See Plasmodium falciparum
Maloprim, 217
Management Sciences for Health (MSH), 34, 119
Manson, Patrick, 129
Mao Tse Tung, 133
Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa (MARA), 47, 169
Mass drug administration (MDA), 208, 212–213, 216, 233
Mauritius, 179
Mawanhgolui Han dynasty, 133
Mbarara, Uganda, 321
McClellan, George, 126
McGregor, I.A., 216
MDA. See Mass drug administration
MDGs. See Millennium Development Goals
MDR. See Multidrug resistant
Meckel, Johann Friedrich, 128
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), 62, 64, 75
Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV)
antimalarial drugs R&D, 10, 15, 81
major initiatives, 47
R&D, 301, 303–305, 304, 307–309
synthetic artemisinin, 64
Mefloquine
analogs, 310
availability, 43
basic properties, 255
chemoprophylaxis, 217
drug class, 253
public sector drug flows, 38
social marketing, 41
tier pricing, 65
Melbourne, Australia, 224
Metabolic acidosis, 149, 150, 151–152
Metakelfin, 291
Methylene blue, 309
MEWS. See Malaria early warning systems
Microeconomic studies, 183–184
Conly’s study in Paraguay, 186
direct costs, 184–185
indirect costs, 185
total direct and indirect costs, 185–187
Migration, 231–232
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 51
MIM. See Multilateral Initiative on Malaria
Minimum parasiticidal concentration (MPC), 258
Mission Pharma, 41
MMSS. See Malaria Medicines and Supplies Service
MMV. See Medicines for Malaria Venture
Molecular diagnostic methods, 223
Molecular markers of resistance, 279–281
Monotherapies
Montreal, Canada, 197
Mortality rates. See Malaria, mortality rates
Mosquito
discovering stages of, 128–129
Mozambique
chloroquine resistance, 280
IPTi trials, 219
malaria control, 214–215
migration, 232
per capita health expenditures, 98
trade and foreign direct investment, 182
vaccines, 224
MPC. See Minimum parasiticidal concentration
Mpumalanga, South Africa, 235
MSF. See Médecins Sans Frontières
MSH. See Management Sciences for Health
Muheza, Tanzania, 132
Multidrug resistant (MDR), 260, 309
Multilateral Initiative on Malaria (MIM), 48
Multi-Stage Malaria DNA Vaccine Operation (MuStDO), 227–228
MVI. See Malaria Vaccine Initiative
Myanmar, 236
N
Najera, J.A., 179
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Challenge Grant Program, 305
National Institutes of Health, 224, 301
Naval Medical Research Center. See U.S. Naval Medical Research Center
Navrongo, Ghana, 228
Navrongo Health Research Centre, 228
Netherlands, the
bilateral donor, 105
contributions to R&D, 304
German invasion of, 131
International Dispensary Association, 40
malaria in, 97
per capita health expenditures, 99
Neurotoxicity studies, 267–268, 310
New Guinea
chloroquine resistance, 132, 276, 280
malaria control, 209–210
mosquito netting, 202
Plasmodium malariae, 158
New York, New York, 197
New York University, 224
NGOs. See Nongovernmental organizations
Nicaragua, 216
Nigeria
Abuja 50, 52, 76, 198, 317, 318
Calabar Hospital, 177
drug labeling and instructions, 318
drug resistance, 261
health care expenditures, 96, 98
home treatment, 318
hospital-based evidence, 177
productivity costs, 188–189
total direct and indirect costs, 187
training shopkeepers, 320
NMRC. See U.S. Naval Medical Research Center
Noguchi Memorial Institute of Medical Research, 228
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 42, 45, 75
North America, malaria in, 26
Norway, 105
NYVAC-Pf7, 227
O
Oceania, 254
OptiMAL dipstick, 222
Oxford University, 224
Oylset, 206
P
Packaging, drug, 315–316
Pan-African Malaria Conference, 48
Papua, New Guinea
chloroquine resistance, 132, 276, 280
malaria control, 209–210
mosquito netting, 202
overcoming economic barriers to treatment, 313
Plasmodium malariae, 158
Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, 224
Paraguay, microeconomic study in, 185, 186
Paralysis, 153
ParaSight-F, 222
Pare-Taveta Malaria Scheme, 207
PATH. See Program for Appropriate Technology in Health
PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction
Peace Corps, 305
Pelletier, Joseph, 130
Permanet, 206
Permethrin, 201
Pesticide Evaluation Scheme. See World Health Organization
Petroleum oil, 211
Pfcrt, 280
Pfdhfr, 279–280
Pfdhps, 279–280
Pfmdr, 280–281
Pharmacie Regionale d’Approvisionnement (PRA), 36
Pharmacodynamics, 258
Pharmacokinetics, 254–255, 258
Philippines, 203
Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 42
Pinotti, M., 216
Piperaquine, 253, 255, 294, 307
Plasmochin (pamaquine), 131
Plasmodium berghei, 133
Plasmodium falciparum
diagnostic testing, 41
drug resistance, 130, 198, 256, 273–275
fluorescent microscopy, 221
Garki project, 208
human malaria, 136–140, 144–147
MDA, 213
natural immunity, 225
RDTs, 221–222
severe manifestations, 149
Plasmodium malariae, 126, 128, 136–137, 158–159
Plasmodium ovale, 132, 136–137, 140, 144, 159
Plasmodium relictum, 129
Plasmodium vivax
chloroquine resistance, 275
described, 157–158
discoveries, 128–131
MDA, 216
primaquine tolerance, 276
recurrent malaria, 140
transmission of, 126
vaccines, 223
Plasmodium yoelii, 275
Plato, 125
PLIVA Pharmaceuticals, 309
PNA. See Senegalese Pharmacie Nationale d’Approvisionnement
Policy making issues, ix
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 137, 146, 279
Population-based studies, 175
Population movements and malaria, 231–232
Poverty and malaria, 180
Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits, 102
PRA. See Pharmacie Regionale d’Approvisionnement
Pregnancy
anemia, 205
azithromycin, 310
chemoprophylaxis, 50, 217, 302
intermittent preventive therapy (IPTp). See Intermittent preventive therapy, pregnant women
ITN use, 198
malaria in, 155–157
mortality, 205
reducing high-risk, 103
sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine and, 22
susceptibility during, 26
treatment, 255
Price discrimination, 65
Private sector drug flows, 40–41
Procurement. See Drug procurement
Productivity costs, 188–189
Program for Appropriate Technology in Health (PATH), 47
Proguanil, 132, 217, 253, 291, 294
Prostration, 149
PRSCs. See Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits
Public sector drug flows, 36
Pyrimethamine, 217, 253, 254, 255, 291
Pyrroloquinazolines, 309
Q
Qinghaosu. See Artemisinins
Quartan malaria. See Plasmodium malariae
Queensland Institute RESA of Medical Research (QIMR), 224
Quinine
absorption and elimination, 255
aryl aminoalcohol compounds, 253
severe malaria, 256
uncomplicated malaria, 254
Quinoline, 308
R
R&D. See Research and development
RACTAP. See Réseau d’Afrique Centrale des Thérapeutiques Antipaludiques
Ranbaxy, 308
Rapid diagnostic test (RDT), 68, 69–71, 221–223
RBCs. See Red blood cells
RBM. See Roll Back Malaria
RDT. See Rapid diagnostic test
Rectal artesunate, 309
Rectocap, 262
Recurrent malaria, 140
Red blood cells (RBCs), 138, 220
Regulation in retail drug market, 94
Repellants, 211
Republic of the Congo. See Congo
Research and development (R&D)
antimalarial drugs, 10, 301–311
impetus for, 81
Réseau d’Afrique Centrale des Thérapeutiques Antipaludiques (RACTAP), 237
Resochin (chloroquine), 131
Respiratory distress, 149, 151–152
Riamet, 294
RNA for diagnosis, 223
Rockefeller Foundation, 199
MMV funding, 47
R&D contributions, 304
Roll Back Malaria (RBM), 13
financing and procurement of drugs, 113
goals, 232–233
increased funding since advent of, 105–106
major initiatives, 49–51, 50, 76, 198
Malaria Medicines and Supplies Service (MMSS), 120–121
market stimulation, 116
Roman Campagna, 126
Rome, Italy, 126
Ross, Ronald, 128–129, 178, 202
Ross Institute, 130
RTS,S, 225
Rufiji Demographic Surveillance Site (DSS), 28, 56
Rufiji District, Tanzania, 56, 94
Russell, Paul, 199
Rwanda
drug policy, 235
epidemics and climate change, 231
microeconomic studies, 187
migration, 232
per capita health expenditures, 98
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
tax revenues, 97
S
Sachs, Jeffrey, 180
SACs. See Structural Adjustment Credits
SADCC. See Southern African Development Cooperation Conference
SALs. See Structural Adjustment Loans
Sao Tome & Principe, 98
School-based education, 323–324
Schultz, L.J., 218
SEACAT. See South East African Combination Antimalarial Therapy Evaluation
Sector-wide approach (SWAp), 102–103, 103n. 2, 104
Senegal
ACT, evidence base, 264
availability of antimalarials, 42
Bandafassi, 175
drug financing, 43–44
economic and health indicators, 35
health care expenditures, 98
illegal drug flows, 41–42
IPTc, 219
malaria in, 34
Mlomp, 175
Niakhar, 175
population-based studies, 175
private sector drug flows, 40
public sector drug flows, 36, 37
subclinical infections, 146
Senegalese Pharmacie Nationale d’Approvisionnement (PNA), 36, 40
Severe malaria, defined, 150
Shillcutt, S.D., 69
Shin Poong, 307
Shopkeepers, training, 320–321
Shortt, H.E., 129–130
Sicily, Italy, 131
Sidewalk medication, 41
SIT. See Sterile insect technology
Social marketing of antimalarials, 41, 43, 56
Solomon Islands, 203
Somalia, 98
Sontochin (3 methyl chloroquine), 131
Sophocles, 125
South Africa
ACT use, 213
KwaZulu Natal, 11, 14, 172, 207, 214–215, 229, 236
malaria in, 24
Mpumalanga, South Africa, 235
pharmaceuticals from, 36
South East African Combination Antimalarial Therapy Evaluation (SEACAT), 237
Southern African Development Cooperation Conference (SADCC), 42
SP. See Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine
Spasticity, 153
Speech disorders, 153
Spirit possession, 30
Sporozoites, 138
Statens Serum Institut, 224
Sterile insect technology (SIT), 212
Sterling Winthrop, 306
Structural Adjustment Credits (SAC), 102
Structural Adjustment Loans (SAL), 102
Subsidy. See Global subsidy
Sudan
chloroquine resistance, 132, 280
malaria early warning systems, 233
migration, 232
per capita health expenditures, 98
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
seasonal transmission, 146
Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP)
antifol combination drugs, 291
artesunate and, 235
combination treatment and, 22n. 1
discoveries in, 132
effectiveness, 22
Garki project, 208
IPT with, 218–219
R&D, 306
resistance, 4n. 2, 172, 198–199, 237, 271, 274
Sulfalene, 291
Sulfamethoxazole, 291
Supernatural intervention, 30
Supranational subsidy, 88, 92–93
Suriname, 236
Swamp fever. See Malaria
SWAp. See Sector-wide approach
Sweden, 105
Sweet wormwood. See Artemisia annua
Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, 47, 303
Swiss Tropical Institute, 224
Symptomatic cases, treatment of, 212–213
T
Tafenoquine, 253, 292–293, 306, 310
Tajikistan, 232
Tanzania
Bagamoyo District, 59, 175, 209
childhood mortality, 173
chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132
climate change, 231
drug policy, 235
economic barriers to treatment, 313
educating family decision makers and traditional healers, 322
health care expenditures, 98
health education messages, 320
HIV and malaria, 156
hospital-based evidence, 177
IPT use, 219
Kilombero, 94
malaria early warning systems, 233
Muheza, 132
Pare-Taveta Malaria Scheme, 207
pharmaceuticals from, 36
poor drug supply, 33
population-based study, 175
retail drug competition and regulation, 94
severe malaria, 145
single vs. combination candidates, 227
traditional medicines, 31
Ulanga, 94
Tanzania Essential Health Interventions Project (TEHIP)
description, 28–29
key observations, 59
malaria-related deaths, 57
research area, 56
results, 29
verbal autopsies, 57
types of care, 58
Tax revenues, potential for increased, 97–99
TB. See Tuberculosis
TDR. See World Health Organization, Special Programme on Research and Training in Tropical Diseases
TEHIP. See Tanzania Essential Health Interventions Project
Tennessee Valley Authority, 127, 197
Tertian malaria. See Plasmodium vivax
Thailand
ACT as first-line therapy, 213, 229, 236, 263, 264, 266
azithromycin clinical trials, 310
chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 131–132, 280
counterfeit drugs, 317
DEET use, 211
informal sector, 31
ITN use, 205
introduction of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, 132
mefloquine resistance, 275
middle-income country, 101
migration, 232
pyronaridine, 294
RDTs, 222
study of pregnant women, 269, 270
Thalassemias, 147
Therapeutic treatment failure (TTF), 273
Tiered pricing, 65
Tigray, Ethiopia, 191–194
Tobin taxes, 100
Trade investment, 181–182
Traditional healers, educating, 321–323
Trape, J.F., 175
Treatment, 27–28
antimalarial, aims of, 252–253
close-to-home, 318–319
decisions to seek—, 30–33
epidemics and, 233
government expenditures, 185
household expenditures, 184–185, 193
models, 67–74
self-—, 30, 41, 59, 85–86, 315
severe malaria, 256–257
symptomatic cases, 213
uncomplicated malaria, 254
Tropical splenomegaly syndrome. See Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly
TROPIVAL, 308
Tryptanthrins, 309
TTF. See Therapeutic treatment failure
Tuberculosis (TB)
combining drugs for treatment, 4
external support for control, 75
global market for drugs, 86
price discrimination for drugs, 65
Tunis, Tunisia, 131
Tunisia, 131
U
Uganda
antimalarial drug resistance, 271
chloroquine resistance, 132, 280
drug labeling and instructions, 318
drug packaging, 316
educating family decision makers and traditional healers, 321–322
epidemics and climate change, 231, 233
Iteso, 323
per capita health expenditures, 98
Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits process, 102
Ulanga, Tanzania, 94
UNICEF. See United Nations Children’s Fund
United Kingdom
bilateral donor, 105
contributions to R&D, 304
health care expenditures, 99
major initiatives, 46
United Nations
agencies of, 105
Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 104, 105, 112–115, 117, 120, 302–303, 323
Millennium Summit, 51
Office of—High Commissioner for Refugees, 105
United States
Army Medical Research and Development Command, 132
bilateral donor, 105
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 127
Department of Defense, 305
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 303, 305, 306
funding source, 8
health care expenditures, 99
major initiatives, 46
R&D, 74
spread of malaria, 126–127
State Department, 305
University of Edinburgh, 129
University of Liverpool, 308
University of Maryland, 223
University of Nairobi, 317
University of Nebraska, 308
Urban malaria, 230
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), 20, 101, 104, 228.
See also Roll Back Malaria
U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC), 305
U.S. Naval Medical Research Center (NMRC), 224, 227, 306
User fees for health services, 99–100
V
candidate, 224
development, 47
natural immunity, 225
strategies, 225–226
testing and use, 228–229
trials, 228
Vanuatu, 203
Vector control, 209–212
Venezuela, 132
Vestergaard nets, 206
Vical, 224
Vietnam
ACT as first-line therapy, 213, 236
concerns about drug resistance, 74
counterfeit drugs, 317
household living standards, 181, 182–183
ITN programs, 203
low-income country, 101
neurotoxicity, 268
piperaquine, 294
Vietnam Living Standards Surveys (VLSS), 182
Virchow, Rudolf Ludwig Karl, 128
VLSS. See Vietnam Living Standards Surveys
W
Wage rate method, 188–189
Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 224
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR)
antimalarial drug R&D, 10, 15, 262, 307–310
Division of Experimental Therapeutics, 305
drug budget, 307
mefloquine production, 132–133
Military Infectious Disease Research Program, 305–307
R&D, 301
vaccine clinical trials, 224
WANMAT I and II. See West African Networks for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments
Washington, D.C., 126, 262, 305
Washington, George, 126
Wasps, The (Aristophanes), 125
Wellcome-Kenya Medical Research Institute, 224
Wellcome Trust, 46, 48, 301, 303
R&D contributions, 304
West Africa
Burkina Faso, West Africa, 97, 98, 187, 188–189, 202, 203–205, 212, 223, 316
drug resistance, 172
genetic expression of Duffy blood antigen, 157
Plasmodium malariae, 158
productivity costs of morbidity, 188–189
West African Networks for Monitoring Antimalarial Treatments (WANMAT I and II), 237
Wet agriculture and malaria, 126
WHO. See World Health Organization
WHOPES. See World Health Organization, Pesticide Evaluation Scheme
Williams, Hervey Vaughan, 215
Willingness-to-pay approach, 184, 190–191, 192, 194
Winthrop Stearns, 131
World Bank
Abuja Conference, 49
Adaptable Program Loans and Credits (APLs), 103
emergency recovery loans and credits, 103
evidence from experimental animals, 269
funding data, 107
funding source, 101, 102–103, 105
International Development Association (IDA), 8, 75, 103, 105
International School Health Initiative, 323
market stimulation, 116
Medicines for Malaria Venture initiative, 47
Poverty Reduction Support Loans and Credits (PRSCs), 102
R&D, 302–303
Structural Adjustment Loans and
Structural Adjustment Credits (SALs and SACs), 102
World Health Organization (WHO)
Abuja Conference, 49
centralized procurement system, 9, 112–113
control strategies, 199–200, 234
endorsement of combination therapy, 5, 61, 72, 79, 80, 237
environmental controls, 211
Global Burden of Disease program, 169
Global Drug Facility (GDF), 118–119, 119, 120
global eradication of chloroquine, 131
Higher Impact Adjustment Lending, 103
in vivo antimalarial drug sensitivity classification, 277, 277
IPT recommendations, 218
ITN approval, 206
Medicines for Malaria Venture initiative, 47
mefloquine development, 132
partnership with U.S. Agency for International Development, 20
Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES), 200
pre-qualification for drug suppliers, 40
quality assurance strength, 116
school-based education, 323
severe malaria, defined, 150
Special Programme on Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), 10, 46–49, 48, 203, 301, 302–303, 304, 306, 307–309, 315
support for Cambodian Pharmaceutical Enterprise, 38
treatment benchmarks, 66
World Health Report, 67
World Trade Organisation, 99
World War I, 131
World War II, 127, 130, 132, 198, 200, 206
WRAIR. See Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
Wright’s stain, 220
Y
Ya chud, 31
Yorktown, Virginia, 126
Z
Zambia
ACT as first-line therapy, 236
availability of antimalarials, 42
Central Board of Health, 36
chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum, 132
control methods, 229
drug financing, 44–45
economic and health indicators, 35
health care expenditures, 98
home treatment, 319
illegal drug flows, 42
Kafue, 44
malaria in, 34
Medical Stores Ltd., 36
private sector drug flows, 40–41
public sector drug flows, 36, 38
Zambian National Formulary, 41
Zhou En Lai, 133
Zoophagic, 141
Zoophilic, 141
Zooprophylaxis, 210