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Agricultural Development Through Innovative Research and Application of Biotechnology MILOSLAV RECHCIGL U.S. Agency for International Development This paper examines some of the problems that confront world agriculture and related environmental issues, especially in Third World countries, and discusses some of the new approaches which have been initiated by the U.S. Agency for International Develop- ment (AID) in an effort to seek solutions to these problems. The focus is on innovative AID research programs and the application of biotechnology to crop improvement and to agriculture in general. Research policy, priorities, and applications are emphasized rather than state-of-the-art or recent technological advances in the field. EMERGING PROBLEMS IN WORLD AGRICULTURE In the last half century, phenomenal progress has been made in increasing agricultural productivity. In the case of the United States, production levels have more than doubled even though the area of the land under cultivation has actually declined. This re- markable progress has been made possible by advances in agricul- tural science, particularly the development of agricultural chemicals, improved plant varieties, and farm mechanization. As a result of the early discoveries by the Czechoslovak-born Gregor Mendel, a foundation was laid in genetics which enabled plant breeders to produce new and improved crop varieties. These varieties were not only high-yielding, but many of them possessed desirable characteristics such as resistance to diseases or pests. Unfortunately, it was soon discovered that improved breeding practices have their limitations. Many generations may be needed 198
199 to develop a desired strain, and some important genetic traits may be lost as a result of intensive in-breeding. Furthermore, geneti- cally superior plants may require high levels of crop management, including the input of expensive fertilizers and extensive use of pesti- cides and herbicides. The continued application of the latter may, in turn, bring about accumulation of toxic residues in the environment. These problems are further compounded by the possibility that a high degree of in-breeding and the narrowing of the genetic base of widely cultivated crops can increase the susceptibility of crops to major disease outbreaks. Intensive use of irrigation, which is a prerequisite for a maximum crop output in arid regions, can bring additional problems since heavily irrigated soils are plagued by salt buildup and mineral toxicities. Agricultural problems are not limited to any one region and are particularly acute in Third World countries where farmers still struggle to extract whatever food they can from marginal soils. Con- tinued and expanded use of marginal land must inevitably lead to trace element deficiencies and the need for increased use of remedial fertilization, which is too costly for a poor farmer to afford. These problems are further accentuated by the ever-increasing pressure of population growth. If the world's population continues to grow at 1.8 percent annually, food production will have to double in the next forty years to keep pace. In addition to the need to feed many more people, food will have to be produced from inferior soil under poor climatic and continuously deteriorating environmental conditions. Clearly, new ideas and new approaches are needed to cope with such a plethora of problems. SEEKING SOLUTIONS THROUGH INNOVATIVE RESEARCH To meet these and related challenges, in 1981 the U.S. Congress established an innovative new Program in Science and Technology Cooperation (PSTC) to be administered by AID. AID has a long tradition of assisting developing countries to achieve self-sustaining economic growth and to improve the well-being of the poor majorities of their populations. The application of science and technology to development over the last three decades has been perhaps the single most important source of sustained and broadly-based economic and social progress among the less developed countries (LDC). The new program mandated by Congress was designed to:
200 ⢠assist developing countries to strengthen their own scientific and technological capacity to undertake the research and experimen- tation necessary for development; ⢠support research in the United States and developing countries on critical development problems; ⢠foster the exchange of scientists and technological experts with developing countries. The purpose of a separate program for these activities was to en- courage AID to take a more innovative and collaborative approach to the problems and processes of development research and technol- ogy transfer. In late 1980, AID created the Office of the Science Advisor, responsible to the AID Administrator, as the focal point for more innovative and collaborative approaches to development research, technology transfer, and related capacity building. The Office identi- fies the scientific and technological needs and opportunities in devel- oping countries and maintains liaison with scientific leaders in both developed and LDC countries. The Office began a worldwide search for new ideas and innovative approaches worthy of support. It met with LDC science attaches, with LDC scientists and institutions, and with U.S. leaders in science and development. It also developed new mechanisms for soliciting, reviewing, and managing research. The PSTC program invites scientists from around the world to submit research proposals directly to AID for consideration and rigorous peer review. The response from LDC scientists and insti- tutions has been enthusiastic, as the annual submission of proposals has increased from 120 in 1981 to 600 in 1986. The quality of sub- missions has also improved significantly in both scientific proposals and development ideas. Several of these grants have already stimu- lated an increased interest in research at the highest levels of LDC national governments. More than 60 countries now participate in this innovative program. In addition to this program, AID supports the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Board on Science and Technology for Inter- national Development (BOSTID), whose programs provide financial support to LDC researchers. BOSTID also convenes workshops, or- ganizes advisory teams, and issues study reports on selected research opportunities. Over 600,000 copies of 50 publications have been distributed throughout the world, and they have had a large and influential readership.
201 RESEARCH PRIORITIES The PSTC program seeks new research ideas in the natural sciences, such as biology and chemistry, and in engineering that can be adapted to problems facing developing countries. Research means the testing of specific scientific hypotheses or the development of new technologies through organized observation in an experimental setting. From its inception, the program has received some 3,000 pre- proposals in open competition. Based on past experience and on several meetings on specific new technologies, six priority areas of investigation known as "Research Modules" have been identified for special emphasis and funding. These six Modules Are: 1. Biotechnology/Immunology in human and/or animal systems, in- cluding recombinant microbiology, monoclonal antibodies, and related immunological techniques for better and more rapid diag- nosis, immunotherapy, vaccine development, and related health applications; 2. Plant Biotechnology, including tissue culture research, protoplast fusion, somaclonal variation, and recombinant microbiology to improve food and fiber crops; also improvement of drought tol- erance and enhancement of resistance to disease, insecticides, and/or herbicides through studies of gene expression, transfer, and regulation; 3. Chemistry for World Food Needs, particularly biochemical growth regulation in plants and animals, soil chemistry, soil/plant/ani- mal relationships, innovative agricultural and food chemistry, biochemistry, studies of natural pesticides from plants, and the chemistry of integrated aquaculture systems; 4. Biomass Resources and Conversion Technology, emphasizing im- proved, renewable production and innovative, efficient use of woody biomass and tropical grasses for fuel, fodder, and higher value chemicals, as well as new and simpler methods to identify economically useful biomass products and by-products; 5. Biological Control of vectors transmitting human, animal, and plant diseases, emphasizing ecologically acceptable interruption of disease transmission based on microorganism/host/vector re- lationships, genetics, biochemistry, immunology, natural preda- tion, and pathobiology;
202 6. Diversity of Biological Resources, emphasizing innovative re- search on terrestrial and aquatic plant/animal/microbial sys- tems of economic promise for development. This includes new methods for identifying economically useful species and prod- ucts, restoration and optimization of habitat for species and ecosystem maintenance and productivity, and development of new molecular-genetic methods for the above. Conventional breeding, taxonomic studies, and distribution surveys are nor- mally excluded. Occasionally, support is provided for selected innovative re- search proposals in two additional somewhat broader areas ("Pre- modules"): ⢠Engineering Technology, such as structural/materials research, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering, including low-cost information and computer technology; and ⢠Atmospheric, Marine, and Earth Sciences, such as meteorology, hydrology, geology, seismology, remote sensing for natural re- source analysis, and the better utilization and preservation of coastal zones. THE BIOTECHNOLOGY EMPHASIS Much of the current research carried out under the PSTC pro- gram centers on biotechnology, an area which is rarely defined prop- erly. Some equate it with molecular gene splicing, recombinant DNA technology, and genetic engineering while others, including agricul- turists, view it more broadly as an integrated use of the biochemistry, microbiology, and engineering sciences to achieve technological ap- plication of the capacities of plants, animals, microbes, and culture tissue cells. The concept of biotechnology is not new. Man has been utilizing biologically-based technologies since the dawn of civilization. The process of making beer, for example, is based on the conversion of carbohydrates to ethanol and carbon dioxide, and the process has had a long tradition and has reached a high degree of sophistication in Czechoslovakia. Furthermore, biotechnologies in the form of im- proved crops and livestock have been the cornerstone of agricultural production, particularly since the rediscovery of Mendel's laws which provided the scientific basis for plant breeding. Research in the last decades has proven that cultured tissue can regenerate whole plants,
203 thus confirming the old "totipotency" concept which has led to the biotechnology revolution of today. Of the various biotechnologies, plant tissue culture currently of- fers the most promise for plant breeding and improvement. The technique which may involve in vitro culturing of cells, tissues, or- gans, or embryos under aseptic and strictly controlled conditions has reached the level of sophistication comparable to that used in mod- ern microbiology. The advantages offered by this technique include the capacity to screen large numbers of individuals in one suspension culture, the capability to select for natural and induced mutation, and the capability to produce identical clones from an individual cell selected for a desired trait. The high frequency of somaclonal variation in tissue culture combined with the selection process often results in cells with enhanced tolerance of the selective agent. The selected trait in the regenerated plants from such cells is often herita- ble. This phenomenon offers endless possibilities for producing new plants with superior characteristics. A number of potentially valuable hybrids are aborted as young embryos because of the sexual incompatability existing among unre- lated plant species. Using plant tissue culture techniques, immature embryos derived from such wide crosses can successfully be rescued from maternal tissues. Another useful technique is somatic hybridization involving fu- sion of two somatic plant cells. To do this, the cellulosic cell wall has to be removed. The resulting protoplasts are then induced to fuse with other protoplasts. In this manner genetic information from two different species can be combined to produce artificial hybrids, such as crossing a potato with a tomato, which would not be possible through conventional plant breeding. At a more fundamental level research has also been initiated towards actually placing new genes into plant cells or even whole plants. Gene transfer techniques rely on the applications of molec- ular genetics, commonly known as genetic engineering. This highly sophisticated research approach involves gene sequencing, gene iso- lation, gene cloning, development of appropriate gene vectors, gene transfer, gene expression, and gene transmission through subsequent generations. Apart from improving the primary plant products such as seeds, tissue culture can also be used to produce a variety of useful sec- ondary compounds on commercial scale, eliminating the problems due to seasonal variation, weather changes, or diseases. Application
204 of biotechnology in the area of crop improvement includes genetic manipulations of microorganisms that interact with plants, such as in nitrogen fixation. The ultimate goal is to be able to grow major cereal crops without the necessity of using extraneous and very costly nitrogen fertilizer. To minimize environmental hazards and increase specificity, there is also a renewed interest in microbially-induced insecticides to control specific crop pests without harming natural predators or beneficial insects. The PSTC program supports research efforts in all these areas, as illustrated by the titles of the projects set forth below: ⢠Tissue culture of banana and plantain for improving yield po- tential; ⢠New varieties of rice for saline and acid soil through tissue cul- ture; ⢠Tissue culture for virus-free potato propagation; ⢠Genetic engineering approach to improvement of Rhizobium for tropical legumes; ⢠Isolation of strains, clones, and regeneration of plants from single cells of winged bean; ⢠New approaches of purification and immunological techniques for characterization and diagnosis of plant viruses infecting beans in Latin America; ⢠Utilization of plant protoplast biotechnologies for transfer of organelles having useful traits into crop plants; ⢠Application of monoclonal antibodies to rice virus epidemiology in the tropics; ⢠Interspecific hybridization in Phaseolus spp. through embryo culture techniques; ⢠Recombinant DNA in filamentous cyanabacteria; ⢠Tissue culture and microbial inoculation technologies for the improvement of Alnus nepalensis planting stock; ⢠Production of high methionine cowpeas by tissue culture. This program represents only a fraction of the total effort which is being mounted in this area by the U.S. government and the pri- vate sector. What is different and unique about the AID program is the international orientation, the collaborative mode with the Third World countries, and the primary focus on the tropical and subtrop- ical regions of the world. In 1986, AID allocated about 50 million dollars to biotechnology with about one-third expended on genetic engineering.
205 CONCLUSION Among recent advances, biotechnology clearly stands in the fore- front as the most promising approach to deal with the numerous emerging problems in agriculture today. If genetic engineering and related biotechnologies can be mastered, they can be used to im- prove agricultural crops and design new plants that are hardier, higher yielding, more nutritious, less expensive to produce, and less dependent on agricultural chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers. These techniques have also shown promise for growing crops on marginal lands, under acidic or sodic conditions, without regard to weather extremes, and without further deterioration of the environment. To be sure, the biotechnological approach should not be viewed as a replacement for the more conventional agricultural measures. For maximum effectiveness, biotechnology will have to be used in conjunction with the traditional agricultural practices currently used by plant breeders, soil scientists, and pest management specialists. REFERENCES Bajaj, Y.P.S., Ed. 1986. Biotechnology in agriculture and forestry. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Biotechnology. Special issue of Science 219. No. 4585 (11 February 1983). International Rice Research Institute. 1985. Biotechnology in international agri- cultural research. Proceedings of the Inter-Center Seminar. Manila, Philip- pines. Moo-Young, M. Ed. 1985. Comprehensive biotechnology. In The principles, applications and regulations of biotechnology in industry, agriculture and medicine. Oxford: Pergamon Press. National Research Council. 1984. Genetic engineering of plants. Agricultural research opportunities and policy concerns. Board on Agriculture. Wash- ington, D.C.: National Academy Press. National Research Council. 1982. Priorities in biotechnology research for inter- national development. Proceedings of a workshop. Board on Science and Technology for International Development. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Office of Technology Assessment. 1984. Commercial biotechnology. An interna- tional analysis. OTA BA 218. Washington, D.C. Office of Technology Assessment. 1982. Genetic technology. A new frontier. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Rechcigl, M., Jr., Ed. 1973. Man, food and nutrition. Strategies and technolog- ical measures for alleviating the world food problem. Cleveland, OH: CRC Press. United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development. 1984. Tissue culture technology and development. ATAS Bull. 1. New York.
206 U.S. Agency for International Development. 1985. Development through inno- vative research. The first three yean of the AID Program in Science and Technology Cooperation (PSTC). Office of the Science Advisor, Washing- ton, D.C.
