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NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION Most of the U.S. research in ocean climate will be supported by agencies of the U.S. government. The National Science Foundation is the lead agency for the Ocean Heat Transport and Storage principal thrust of the National Climate Program. (NSF's responsibilities in this role are summarized below.) This is the only ocean-oriented principal thrust in the National Climate Program and one of two dealing with research. NSF thus is the only agency having a specified lead designation for ocean climate research. This report, addressed to NSF, is intended to guide NSF in that role. The ocean research program that should be implemented to understand climate change is too large to be supported by a single agency of the U.S. government. Several agencies will have important roles to play. However, a review of climate documents that have emanated from the agencies reveals that agencies often do not have a clear image of their role. One sometimes gets the impression that no clear criteria have guided an agency's choice of work. In this chapter, suitable agency roles in ocean climate research will be considered, as well as how those roles might fit together to provide a coherent national ocean climate research program. In addition, the agencies must develop a balanced program of support for ocean climate research, based on the views of a broad spectrum of the oceanographic community. The United States will play a key role in the World Climate Research Program, and will likely support a considerable proportion of the major ocean climate programs. This chapter concludes with a review of international coordination, with some evaluation of possible U.S. positions. NATIONAL CLIMATE PROGRAM OFFICE The National Climate Program Office (NCPO), housed in NOAA, is responsible for administering the National Climate Program and assuring coordination among the agencies in the program. NCPO looks to NSF, as lead agency, for development 49
50 of plans, budget requirements, agency responsibilities, and progress reports related to the Ocean Heat Transport and Storage principal thrust. The role of the NCPO may be changing: there are signs that NCPO will play a more active role in coordinating the climate program among the agencies and in developing a focus for the fragmented climate program in NOAA. Research is only one aspect of the National Climate Program, and the NCPO thus has responsibility for maintaining a balance among the program components. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION The NSF, as lead agency for Ocean Heat Transport and Storage, has the de facto responsibility for oversight of the national ocean climate research program. NSF has been doing this through informal meetings with representatives of other agencies and by making extensive use of the National Research Council (the Board on Ocean Science and Policy and the Climate Research Committee in particular). To date this has worked. If problems arise that involve the setting of priorities among the agencies, it may be necessary to set up a more formal steering mechanism. NSF faces a problem in meeting its responsibilities as lead agency. All the lead agencies in the National Climate Program have had difficulty in coordinating their components. There is thus no good model for NSF to follow. NSF is the largest supporter of ocean climate research and thus has some credibility with the other agencies in its lead role. Coordinating and leading a group of agencies is not something that NSF is accustomed to doing. In order to accomplish this, NSF may wish to consider having the coordination carried out by an outside organization, such as an oceanographic institution or a corporate body, such as the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) or the Joint Oceanographic Institutions (JOI), Incorporated. If this is done, the costs will increase without showing clear scientific return. No matter what procedure is used in coordinating ocean climate research, the expense of coordination should be faced. The National Climate Program is large and complex. If it is to succeed, the component programs must be coordinated. The issue of paying for this coordination should be addressed by the lead agencies and the National Climate Program Office. NSF research programs related to climate have typically
51 involved collaborative research projects from a number of institutions. These programs may have a duration of from 3 to 5 years. Such a mode of operation tends to yield results that respond to specific scientific questions but is not well suited to programs that require a continuing year- after-year commitment. Long-term programs need to be part of a climate research program, and hence there is a need for other agencies that can support them to play a role complementary to that of NSF. NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has been supporting a substantial ocean climate research program (Environmental Research Laboratories, 1979). NOAA programs include the Equatorial Pacific Ocean Climate Studies (EPOCS), the Subtropical Atlantic Climate Study (STACS), and oceanographic components of the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP). NOAA also has the lead responsibility for the U.S. TOGA Program. In addition to carrying out ocean climate research, NOAA has other responsibilities that are important to the climate program. NOAA is the lead agency for the principal thrust of the National Climate Program entitled Generation and Dissemination of Climate Information." NOAA's Environmental Data and Information Service runs the National Climatic Center that manages meteorological data and the National Oceanographic Data Center that manages oceanographic data. As the climate program progresses, the management of data and information will be a factor in its success. Thus these elements of NOAA need to be involved in the planning for large ocean climate experiments. NOAA's National Ocean Service (NOS) has responsibility for ocean monitoring. To date, NOS has exercised that responsibility chiefly in conventional mapping and charting activities. They have missed opportunities to support monitoring useful to ocean climate, such as the Pacific tide gauge network. A global study of the ocean's role in climate demands reliable ocean observations, analogous to those we take for granted in the atmosphere. NOS ought to be working toward developing an ocean service on a par with the atmospheric service provided by the National Weather Service. Although NOS has not so far given a high priority to developing this capability, perhaps the recent creation of the National Ocean Service, from what had been the National Ocean Survey, will lead NOAA, through NOS, to
52 accept responsibility for the needed ocean climate monitoring. The climate program may provide an additional stimulus to NOS. NSF should, perhaps through the NCPO, make known the climate research need for ocean monitoring. NOAA has given some priority to research that could improve the operational capabilities of its service elements. NOAA is the lead agency for the Climate Prediction principal thrust of the National Climate Program. Thus NOAA has supported some research that might lead to a predictive capability. NSF should maintain close ties with NOAA program managers to be sure that programs are complementary. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has the goal of developing spaceborne techniques for observing the ocean and thereby advancing our understanding of oceanic behavior. This objective embraces considerable activity related to ocean climate research. NASA's spaceborne oceanic observations are intended to study oceanic circulation, heat content, and heat flux. Such work involves the interaction of the ocean with the atmosphere and the effect of the ocean on climate. NASA has focused on defining scientific questions addressable by specific earth-orbiting satellite oceanographic sensors. They have commissioned a series of studies that, though not specifically directed to ocean climate research, provide a valuable summary of satellite oceanographic capabilities and needs. The long-term ocean sciences satellite program was reviewed by the National Oceanographic Satellite System Science Working Group, chaired by Francis Bretherton (Ruttenberg, 1981). Other studies completed or under way consider altimetry for studying ocean circulation (TOPEX Science Working Group, 1981), synthetic aperture radar for studying sea ice and surface waves in the open ocean (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 1982), scatterometers for studying wind stress (Satellite Surface Stress Working Group, 1982), color scanners and their value in studying primary production (Ocean Color Science Working Group, 1982), and the type and quality of in situ observations needed to complement satellite ocean observations (in preparation). An earlier NASA study chaired by W.J. Campbell (ICEX, 1979) set forth the need for an Ice and Climate Experiment.
53 A World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) will depend critically on remote sensing by satellite of sea-surface elevation, surface wind stress, and meteorological variables. Thus something like the TOPEX satellite, with altimeter and scatterometer for global sensing of surface ocean currents and surface wind stress, is essential for WOCE. This should be supported by sea-surface temperature sensing by radiometer and satellite data links to in situ ocean instruments. To date NASA has not made a decision on this program, and the uncertainty is a major deterrent to the development of U.S. plans for WOCE. NASA has lead agency responsibility for the principal thrust in Solar and Earth Ra iation. An Earth Radiation Balance Experiment (ERBE) will be an essential part of ocean-atmosphere heat flux studies such as Cage. Though there are plans for an ERBE experiment in the near future, it may have been completed by the time the oceanographers are ready to carry out an ocean heat flux experiment that will need the ERBE measurements. NASA should play a key role in the planning for and execution of large-scale ocean climate experiments. NSF must work with NASA on the timing of large-scale programs for which satellites are essential. In particular, WOCE and heat flux planning must take satellite availability and performance into account. OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH The Office of Naval Research (ONR) does not now explicitly support ocean climate research. ONR does, however, support a number of process studies, particularly at the air-sea interface and in the surface mixed layer, that are relevant to climate. For example, work supported by ONR may be important in resolving the question of the sea-surface water-vapor flux. Our current understanding of ocean-atmosphere climate interaction owes a great deal to the results of the NORPAX program, which was supported for many years by ONR. ONR is also supporting the development of techniques in remote sensing that have direct application to ocean climate research experiments. Furthermore, naval operational activities need environmental information of the type that is important to climate research. ONR has shown a willingness to work with other agencies In ocean climate planning, but it may not choose to accept a formal role in planning and coordinating ocean climate research. NSF, in its lead role, should maintain regular
54 informal contacts with ONR, to ensure that relevant ONR- sponsored research is incorporated into ocean climate studies. NATIONAL COORDINATION An important ingredient in the practical Implementation of the large-scale ocean climate research programs is a consensus from U.S. oceanographers that the experiments can be done and should be done. This is particularly needed for WOCE, since the definition of WOCE's objectives is still incomplete. A commitment by capable scientists to participate and to see that the experiments are successful is also needed. Without the consensus and the commitment, the federal agencies find it difficult to develop the new funding needed for supporting these experiments. One necessary step in developing a consensus is to allay the fears of many oceanographers that all new funds will go to the large programs, like WOCE. This concern needs to be addressed. The federal agencies, and particularly NSF, must be involved. The climate program advocates in the scientific community cannot assure their colleagues in other ocean research disciplines that a proper balance will be found. Those controlling the money must give this assurance. Here is an opportunity for program managers in NSF and other agencies to seek the opinions of oceanographers of all stripes, not just those with climate research interests. What should be the appropriate balance of support for these programs? What is the view of biological and geological oceanographers (for example) about the need for strong support of ocean climate research? Answers to such questions might be sought through National Research Council committees. INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION U.S. work on global ocean climate studies can be augmented and supported through cooperation with other countries. The details of this cooperation have already been given in the chapters of this report that discuss the scientific programs. In this chapter the international framework within which planning is taking place is summarized. International ocean climate research is a component of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP). The WCRP is
55 jointly sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). Ocean climate research is coordinated by the Committee on Climatic Changes and the Ocean (CCOO) under the joint auspices of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the Scientific Committee for Oceanic Research (SCOR) of ICSU. COCO in turn maintains liaison with the Joint Scientific Committee (JSC) of the WCRP. The CCOO was established to give the oceanographers an organization that is parallel to the JSC for the WCRP. The United States has played a strong role in developing international plans for ocean climate research, and there is every indication that this will continue. We should not let the international planning dictate the content of the U.S. program, however. If we are aware of and participate in the international planning, we should benefit from the supporting research work that will be done by other countries in cooperation with us. NSF does not have explicit international responsibilities in ocean climate research, but should work through U.S. delegations and other bodies to ensure that the scientific point of view is considered in international planning. The United States should be sensitive to the need for the CCCO to maintain independence from the meteorological (WMO) and oceanographic (IOC) operational organizations. Both offer the promise of a way to do things more efficiently. However, the oceanographers need an organization that can plan and implement an international research program and that draws upon both the research and the operational sector. The CCCO may develop into such an organization. In these early stages, as CCCO still is trying its wings, the United States should make the effort to support the CCCO as an independent entity by maintaining the SCOR link.
