Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed Transitions Zones for Rural Highways (2012)

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49 S e c t i o n 4 This section provides design guidance for selecting geometric design, traffic control devices, pavement surface, and roadside treatments for transitioning from high- to low-speed roadways on rural highways. The design guidance identifies specific treatments for use in encouraging drivers to reduce their speeds, as intended by the designer, and where possible, quantifies the effectiveness of those treatments. The design guidance addresses transition zone-specific factors such as land use; community context; and the accommodation of trucks, parking, pedestrians, bicyclists, and public transportation services. The design guidance is applicable for rural two- lane highways and rural multilane divided and undivided highways (i.e., non-freeways). The design guidance focuses on roadway and roadside treatments that encourage drivers to reduce their speeds through transition zones. Other speed management components can also be employed to reduce speeds and improve safety through these zones, such as driver education and enforcement programs, but these other speed management components and programs are not addressed in detail here. The design guidance is intended for design and safety engineers at state and local highway agencies that have jurisdiction over the rural highway system, and, more specifically, where the rural highway network enters into a community. Practitioners from consulting companies will also have an interest in the guidelines, as well as members of groups and organizations with inter- est in managing speed on the approaches to and through their communities. The design guidance covers a wide range of issues that ideally will be considered in the design of high- to low-speed transition zones. The design guidance is organized as follows. Section 4.1 describes the relationship between the design guidelines presented herein and the policies and design guidance provided in the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (commonly known as the Green Book) and the Roadside Design Guide; the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD); and NCHRP Synthesis 412: Speed Reduction Techniques for Rural High-to-Low Speed Transitions (Forbes, 2011). Section 4.2 provides definitions for the transition zone study area. Defining the geographical limits of the study area is critical for consistency in design practice. Section 4.3 provides a methodology for assessing whether a high- to low-speed transition zone has speed-limit compliance or safety issues that should be addressed. The analytical framework is first described in general terms followed by more detailed descriptions of each step in the methodology. Section 4.4 provides principles that should guide the design of a transition zone as well as two design concepts for consideration. The section also provides a catalog of potential transi- tion zone treatments with a description and illustration of the treatments and information on effectiveness, cost, contraindications, and installation location. Design Guidance

50 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways Section 4.5 explains the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of transition zone treat- ments after implementation. This section also provides general information for conducting before/after evaluations to assess the affects of the transition zone treatments on speed-limit compliance and safety (i.e., crashes). Section 4.6 summarizes legal/liability issues that should be considered in evaluating and designing transition zones. With the exception of providing advance signing of a lower speed limit or posting of a stepped- down or intermediate speed limit to mitigate an abrupt change in speeds, most jurisdictions do not have an established policy for designing transition zones (Forbes, 2011). Appendix B presents the design guidance from this section in a stand-alone document that could be adopted in full, or modi- fied as appropriate, by highway agencies looking to develop a policy for designing transition zones. 4.1 Relationship of Design Guidance to Other Documents The design guidance presented here is to be used in conjunction with pertinent information from other policies and standards. The current edition of AASHTO’s Green Book (2011) provides a sufficient level of detail for designing roads in a high-speed environment and a low-speed environment; however, the Green Book provides little guidance on the design of transition zones between the two facility types. The design guidance provided herein is intended to fill this gap and complement the policies described in the Green Book. The design guidelines herein also address roadside design issues to some degree, focusing mainly on their impact on speed and to a lesser amount on safety. Roadside features need to be designed with careful consideration given to potential consequences. Roadways designed using this guide should have a balanced roadside design, considering operational and safety issues, consistent with the current edition of the Roadside Design Guide (AASHTO, 2011). Furthermore, traffic control devices on roadways designed using these guidelines should be consistent with the current edition of the MUTCD (FHWA, 2009). In particular, the MUTCD provides general guidance on advance signing of a lower speed limit. Finally, the design guidelines herein build upon NCHRP Synthesis 412 (Forbes, 2011) and incorporate many of the findings from this previous work. 4.2 Definitions of the Transition Zone Study Area The first step in planning for possible improvements to a high- to low-speed transition zone is to define the geographical limits of the transition zone study area. The study area should include a sufficient length of roadway to address critical issues within, and at either end of, the transition zone. Using basic background data, the transition zone study area and the transition zone itself can be preliminarily identified and later refined as necessary through further study and analysis. By defining the transition zone study area, an engineer (or planner) can systematically evalu- ate the need for improvements to better meet key objectives, such as improved safety, reduced vehicle speeds, and an enhanced pedestrian/bicycle environment. This section presents underly- ing transition zone definitions and characteristics for consistency in design practice. 4.2.1 Geographic Definition of the Transition Zone Area NCHRP Synthesis 412 (Forbes, 2011) presents different possible geographic definitions and nomenclature for the transition zone study area. For example, one agency identifies three distinct

Design Guidance 51 zones (rural, transition, and community), while another identifies four zones (rural, approach, transition, and community). For this guide, a three-zone system is adopted to be clear and understandable to both practitioners and laypersons. A three-zone approach allows for a simple answer to questions regarding the limits of the transition zone; however, it is recognized that the transition zone includes two areas, a perception-reaction area and a deceleration area. Different design and driver-related issues need to be addressed regarding these two portions of the transi- tion zone. This three-zone approach, with separate areas within the transition zone, is consistent with general roadway and traffic design principles. It is also consistent with the need for engi- neers to give greater attention to treating the transition zone as an extended length of roadway rather than a specific point on the roadway where a reduction in speed is to occur (Forbes, 2011). The three zones defined in this guide are presented in Figure 4-1 and include the rural zone, transition zone, and community zone. The boundaries between each zone are identified as threshold locations, facilitating analyses and distance measurements. Typical characteristics for each zone are provided in Table 4-1. 4.2.1.1 Rural Zone The rural zone is defined as a high-speed, rural roadway outside of a developed commu- nity. It has a high design speed (≥45 mph), little roadside development, few access points, and is designed to facilitate high-speed, longer distance travel. There are relatively few features or potential conflicts that require driver attention in this zone. The design within this zone should be consistent with the high design and posted speeds. 4.2.1.2 Transition Zone Located between the rural zone and the community zone, the transition zone is the area in which drivers are expected to complete the necessary speed reduction to facilitate safe travel in a more developed area (Forbes, 2011). The theoretical location and length of this zone are deter- mined by a series of physical, operational, and safety characteristics. It may include a section Figure 4-1. Transition zone study area. Transition Zone Rural Zone Tr an si tio n Th re sh ol d C om m un ity T hr es ho ld Drawing Not To Scale Community Zone Perception- Reaction Area Deceleration Area Begin Substantive Speed Reduction Rural zone Transition zone Community zone Perception- reaction area Deceleration area Design speed 45 mph 45 mph varies (but decreasing) 35 mph ADT Lower Lower Increasing Higher Access density Low Low Medium High Ped/bike activity Low Low Medium High Land use Rural/Low Density Rural/Low Density Increasing Density and Intensity Higher Density and Intensity On-street parking No No Unlikely Possibly Note: Ped = pedestrian. Table 4-1. Characteristics of transition zone study area.

52 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways that has similar characteristics to the rural zone. It may also include the edge of the developed community. It should, however, have elements that differentiate it from the other two zones and inform and assist drivers in making the appropriate speed reduction. The two areas that make up the transition zone include the following: • Perception-Reaction Area—The portion of the transition zone where drivers are made aware of an impending need to change their speed and driving behavior. The general physical and operational characteristics of this area are similar to the rural zone; however, some elements should begin to change. Drivers in this area should have clear lines of sight to signs as well as other warning and/or psychological devices that alert them to the changes ahead. These devices may be physically located in either the perception-reaction area and/or the decelera- tion area, depending on the device and design criteria. Some deceleration may occur in this area, but the primary objective is to mentally prepare drivers to adjust their driving behavior and speeds in the deceleration area. • Deceleration Area—The portion of the transition zone where the driver is expected to decelerate to a safe operating speed for entering the developed area. Driver awareness and behavior should adjust with the change in the driving environment. The roadway and roadside characteristics as well as the land use and access are generally beginning to change in this area. The deceleration area may include physical measures to reinforce the needed speed transition. The length of the decel- eration area is determined by factors such as the design speed profile, lines of sight, and design criteria for any physical features introduced in this area. The boundary between this area and the community zone should be set based on safety, roadway, traffic operations, and land-use criteria. 4.2.1.3 Community Zone The community zone is that portion of roadway serving the more developed community area. This zone requires slower travel speeds for safety and community reasons. It typically has very different design characteristics from the other zones, including some or all of the follow- ing: lower design speeds, increased traffic control, on-street parking, sidewalks, curbs and gut- ters, higher land-use intensity, frequent access points, landscaping, street-trees, pedestrian and bicycle activity, narrow lanes, and turn lanes. This zone may extend through the community to the transition zone on the other side. Traffic calming measures may be implemented within this zone to maintain lower speeds. 4.2.1.4 Transition and Community Thresholds The transition threshold is the upstream boundary for planning and designing the entire speed transition zone. It should be far enough upstream that all roadway geometry and line of sight issues can be addressed. It may, for example, be the point at which drivers first observe downstream signs or features that begin to alert them to upcoming roadway and speed changes. The community threshold defines the downstream end of the transition zone. At this threshold the 85th percentile speed should be consistent with the posted speed limit for entering the com- munity. It should typically be set near the edge of development for the community as defined by land-use density, the number of access points, and changes in the roadway and roadside design. For safety reasons, a setback of a few hundred feet may be appropriate between the edge of the community and the transition zone. For a growing community, it may also be necessary to set the community threshold far enough away from the current development to allow for near-term growth. However, if this threshold is set too far from dense development, drivers may not main- tain the desired lower speeds through the community. 4.2.2 Preliminary Identification of Transition Zone Study Area Initially, the engineer may need to define the geographic extents of the transition zone based on readily available data such as posted speeds and local knowledge. However, during the next

Design Guidance 53 step in the process, the transition zone assessment, the geographic limits can be refined based on more detailed planning and engineering information. This will include the use of existing crash and speed data, as well as a review of the current roadway design features. Throughout the process it is important to communicate with local planners, engineers, and road users. As additional information is collected, the engineer can better define the extents of the transition zone study area and the nature of the issues. All of these topics are dealt with further in the next section, which outlines an analytical approach for assessing transition zones and then analysis steps that can guide the assessment. 4.3 Transition Zone Assessment Engineers often have insights into whether or not a specific transition zone might have safety concerns that need to be addressed. This may be through direct observation, discussions with local residents or business owners, anecdotal evidence (e.g., a recent crash), or examination of relevant speed and safety data. To confirm or refute these initial opinions and decide if additional action is required, it is necessary to quantitatively evaluate operations within the transition zone. This section provides a methodology for assessing whether or not a high- to low-speed transition zone has speed-limit compliance or safety issues of a magnitude that may require one or more transition zone treatments. The assessment process consists of a series of evaluations designed to address a range of topics from traffic safety and roadway design to land use and public/stakeholder input. This section begins by suggesting an analytical framework for assembling and measuring the most important data elements. Second, a project identification phase is suggested. This phase is intended to help the engineer quantify and document the potential safety concerns. It focuses on four impor- tant topics: speed, crash experience, highway access, and land use. Third, a set of possible more detailed follow-up analyses are presented. This section concludes with discussions on involving user groups and stakeholders throughout the planning process and a few lessons learned from previous experiences that engineers should be aware of early in a transition zone project. 4.3.1 Analytical Framework Transition zones are unique when compared to most other portions of the roadway system. Typically, design continuity is very important for a roadway and abrupt changes in design are avoided to the extent possible. However, in a transition zone the roadway design necessarily changes, sometimes abruptly, from a rural design and context to a community design and con- text, and drivers are expected to change their behavior to match the new conditions. When drivers do not change their behavior, for whatever reason, safety and community livability issues may arise. 4.3.1.1 Transition Zone Factors and Straight-Line Diagram To address these issues, it is important to consider the wide range of factors that affect traffic conditions in these unique roadway sections. It is also necessary to collect information to evalu- ate these factors and draw conclusions regarding both concerns and potential solutions. Some of the most important and basic factors include speed, crash experience, and roadway design; however, there are many other physical and operational factors that could affect the conditions in a transition zone. Potential factors include the following: • Speeds: posted, design, and actual speed profiles; • Crashes: frequency/rate, location, type, and severity; • Access Points: location and density;

54 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways • Land Use and Zoning: current and future; • Roadway Alignment: vertical and horizontal (and lines of sight); • Traffic Volumes: daily and peak hour; • Vehicle Types: cars, trucks, agricultural, and emergency response; • Non-Motorized Transportation: pedestrians and bicyclists; • Transit Design or Operational Features; • Signs, Striping, and Traffic Control; • Intersection Geometry; • Roadway Design Elements (cross-section elements and widths, etc.); • Roadside Design Elements (sidewalks, landscape, streetscape, etc.); • Parking; • Current Transition Zone Treatments. Given that many of these elements are physical features tied to physical locations in the study area, compiling as many of these elements as possible into one universal evaluation tool can provide insights and help draw connections that would be difficult to discern if the elements were treated separately. A straight-line diagram can be used to display much of the relevant plan- ning and engineering data in one graphic as shown in Figure 4-2. A straight-line diagram ties information to a milepost and/or distance measurement. This permits the engineer to quickly observe trends and possible correlations over the length of the study area and across datasets. For example, the spatial relationship between speeds, crashes, and access point density can all be observed on one figure. Subsequently, more detailed quantitative analyses can still be conducted as necessary, but this tool quickly highlights potential areas of interest. It can also be used to show the information to policy makers and the public. A straight-line diagram allows the engineer to more clearly define both the problem areas and the thresholds between the three zones. The quantitative elements of the straight-line diagram can also be used to evaluate the extent of specific concerns, such as where the 85th percentile speed exceeds the posted or design speed by more than 5 mph or where the observed crash fre- quency or crash rate exceeds a threshold value for a reference population of similar sites. The straight-line diagram can be used to refine the actual threshold locations. By plotting the access point density along with the land uses and design features, it is possible to set the com- munity threshold. Then the transition threshold can be set, taking into account the posted or design speeds, lines of sight, and other design factors. Methods for calculating these are discussed in more detail in later sections. 4.3.1.2 Elements of the Straight-Line Diagram A hypothetical straight-line diagram is presented in Figure 4-2. While information could be added (or deleted), a figure similar to the one shown offers a reasonable starting point for the project identification phase. The elements of the diagram are briefly summarized in Table 4.2 followed by more detailed explanations for how to collect and analyze the respective data. Addi- tional detailed analyses may be required following the project identification phase if it is deter- mined that safety concerns exist and that improvements should be made to remedy the issue(s). 4.3.2 Project Identification Phase The first phase in a transition zone assessment is to determine whether the high- to low-speed transition zone has speed-limit compliance or safety issues that deserve further investigation and to assess the magnitude and extent of the issues. During this phase, the engineer is mov- ing beyond anecdotal evidence suggesting that a transition zone has speed or safety issues that should be addressed to quantifying the magnitude of the potential concern. At the end of the

Figure 4-2. Straight-line diagram tool (P-R 5 perception- reaction, Decel 5 deceleration, Vert. 5 vertical).

56 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways project identification phase, it is perfectly acceptable to determine that no concerns exist or at least the concern is not of the magnitude of what was initially thought. On the other hand, results of the project identification phase may provide the necessary information to prompt further detailed investigation and possibly project development and prioritization. In general, it is important that the scope of the transition zone analysis match the extent and nature of the suspected problem given the context of the roadway being analyzed. Thus, care should be taken to make sure that major issues are not overlooked, but also that minor and/or follow-up issues are not given unnecessary time and attention. At a minimum, the project identification phase should consider speed, crash, access point, and land-use data. The data should be entered into a straight-line diagram as discussed previously or some other similar analysis tool. If the engineer decides not to use the straight-line tool, the data can be noted on a plan view or aerial photo of the roadway. If the straight-line diagram tool is used, only a portion of the tool will be utilized in this phase. Additional data can be entered as needed later as part of the detailed assessment process. Table 4-2. Straight-line diagram elements. Project identification phase Aerial Photo An aerial photo sets the context and facilitates data collection and evaluation. Posted Speed Posted speeds are graphed based on the location of the current speed limit signs. Observed Speeds Observed speeds are presented based on data collected at up to five data collection locations, with three proposed as the minimum necessary (within the community zone, near the community zone threshold, and near the transition zone threshold). For each location, the 85th percentile and mean speeds for low volume (free-flow) traffic conditions are recorded and connected using straight-line interpolation. Crash Data The most recent 3 to 5 years of crash data are recorded by location in a manner that allows the engineer to observe clusters and possible relationships. It may be of interest to distinguish the crashes by severity and type. The average observed crash frequencies (i.e., crashes/mi/yr) can be calculated and plotted for the transition and the community zones separately or calculated using a sliding window or peak searching approach (AASHTO, 2010) to divide the study area into smaller segments for analysis. The average observed crash frequencies can be compared to statewide and/or regional threshold values for the transition and community zones. Using crash and traffic volume data, the average observed crash rate (i.e., crashes/vehicle- miles-traveled/yr) can be calculated and plotted for the transition and the community zones separately or calculated using a sliding window or peak searching approach (AASHTO, 2010) to divide the study area into smaller segments for analysis. The average observed crash rates can be compared to statewide and/or regional threshold values for transition and community zones. When analyzing the crash data, consideration needs to be given to whether to include segment-related crashes, intersection-related crashes, or both, and whether to include only speed-related crashes or all crashes. Average Daily Traffic (ADT) The ADT for the transition zone and community zone are plotted for reference. Access Points Access points are plotted by location showing active driveways and intersections on both sides of the street. Access Point Density Using the above access point data, access point density is presented for a sliding window (e.g., 0.15 mi in either direction from the plotted location). Land Use Land-use types are plotted by location for the two sides of the street. Typical land uses include rural, residential, retail, industrial, office, mixed-use, and recreational. Detailed follow-up analyses Vertical Profile The vertical elevations are plotted, resulting in both a profile and a percent grade figure. Horizontal Profile The horizontal profile is provided in the aerial photo at the top of the diagram; however, data on the horizontal curves can be plotted on the diagram as well. This would be calculated or estimated based on plans or aerial photos and then entered by location.

Design Guidance 57 The recommended steps of the project identification phase are presented in Figure 4-3 and described below. Step 1: Define Study Area and Referencing System At the outset of the project identification phase, the engineer should define the geographic extents of the study area and the referencing system to be used to enter data. The study area should extend from within the community to the high-speed rural area clearly beyond the tran- sition zone. This may be a distance of 1,000 to 3,000 ft or more depending on the context. Defining the reference system involves selecting a point within the community zone as a refer- ence point for all measurements. It may be easiest to select a major intersection near the edge of the community as the reference point. That way it is relatively easy to correlate state or county mileposts with the study area reference system. This correlation can facilitate the entry of data recorded using the state or county system (e.g., crash data). In the example straight-line diagram, the state mileposts have been correlated to the study area reference system, which is in both feet and miles from a specific intersection. Step 2: Identify Current Transition Zone Boundaries The second step in the process is to identify the current transition zone based on the locations of the speed limit signs and advance warning signs. Assume the current transition zone begins approximately 200 to 400 ft in advance of the first reduced speed limit sign (regulatory sign) or speed reduction treatment and ends approximately 150 to 250 ft after the last (and possibly only) reduced speed limit sign or treatment prior to entering the community. The upstream boundary can be set in part based on when the speed limit sign becomes clearly visible to oncoming drivers. Thus, with good visibility geometry and signage, the values will be higher than for restricted vis- ibility conditions. Using the above values, the minimum current transition zone length is approxi- mately 350 ft, though many will be 500 ft or more. Alternatively, the engineer could assume the start of the transition zone is a few hundred feet in advance of the warning sign for the impending speed reduction (if such a sign is present). This is the point at which a driver becomes aware that a speed change will be required. This would result in a longer current transition zone. Step 3: Conduct Speed-Limit Compliance Study Speed data provide an important foundation for assessing speed-limit compliance issues in the current transition zone and/or community zone. By obtaining speed data at key locations, it is possible to create an operating speed profile for the transition zone study area. Time-mean Step 1: Define Study Area and Referencing System Step 2: Identify Current Transition Zone Boundaries Step 3: Conduct Speed-Limit Compliance Study Step 4: Conduct Crash Analysis Step 5: Define Theoretical Transition Zone Boundaries Decision Point Step 6: Assess Initial Results of Project Identification Phase Figure 4-3. Recommended steps of project identification phase.

58 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways speeds should be collected during low volume, free-flow conditions. The data should be collected following proper sampling methods and in accordance with agency guidelines and/or the proper procedures (e.g., see Chapter 5 of the Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) Manual of Transportation Engineering Studies [ITE, 2010]). Figure 4-4 shows recommended locations within the study area for collecting the initial speed data. Locations A, B, and C are highly recommended for the analysis. Locations B and C allow the engineer to estimate the transition zone entry and exit operating speeds. Location A gives the engineer information on whether speeds generally remain the same, increase, or decrease as vehicles continue through the community. Additional locations (e.g., D and E) may be useful for creating a more detailed operating speed profile through the study area. Optionally, a laser gun can be used to create a complete speed profile for the entire transition zone (F). For each location, the 85th percentile and mean operating speeds (during free-flow condi- tions) should be computed. Using linear interpolation, the data can be used to generate an oper- ating speed profile as presented in the straight-line diagram. If available, laser gun data can be used to create an even more accurate speed profile. To identify potential speed-limit compliance issues, the operating speed profile should be compared to one or more speed profile metrics. This can be done in a manner similar to the method contained in FHWA’s Speed Concepts: Informational Guide (Donnell et al., 2009), which presents a straight-line analysis analogous to the one proposed in this document. Potential speed metrics include the following: • Posted speed limits, • Design speed, and • Inferred design speed. The posted limit speed is known and the design speed can be obtained from the agency responsible for the original highway design (see the original design plans and documentation). The inferred design speed can also be determined from the design plans, though it will likely not be clearly identified. The inferred design speed may be beyond the scope of most project identi- fication study phases. At a minimum, the engineer should compare the observed 85th percentile speeds at Locations B and C to the posted speed limits. In accordance with the 2009 MUTCD guidelines, it is recommended that the 85th percentile speed profile be within 5 mph of the posted speed limits. If the 85th percentile speeds are 5 to 10 mph above the posted speeds, then speed-limit compliance may be an issue worth further investigation. If the 85th percentile speeds are more than 10 mph above the posted speed limit, then further study should be conducted, and it may be necessary to make adjustments and/or improvements to the transition zone to achieve better speed-limit compliance. If the 85th percentile Figure 4-4. Speed data collection locations within the study area. Current Transition ZoneRural Zone Drawing Not To Scale Community Zone E C D B A F Free-Flow Speed Transition Zone Perception/Response Speed Mid Transition Zone Speed Transition Zone Exit Speed Community Speed Speed Profile (Entire Transition Zone) Possible Area Between Transition Zone and Community Zone Z

Design Guidance 59 speed at the end of the transition zone (i.e., Location B) is acceptable, but the 85th percentile speed through the community (i.e., Location A) is more than 10 mph over the speed limit, then consider- ation could be given to implementing speed reduction treatments (e.g., traffic calming measures) in the community zone. Comparisons of the observed speed profile to the other speed profile metrics could provide further insight into speed-limit compliance issues. In addition to the speed analysis described above, the deviation of speeds from the average can create safety issues. The pace speed can be investigated along with the standard deviation to determine how far from the average speed most vehicles are traveling. This topic is addressed further in the detailed evaluation discussion. The goal of the speed study is to determine whether drivers are complying with the posted speed limits in the transition and community zones. Higher speeds have been correlated with higher accident severity. Excessive speeds that are inconsistent with the roadway design in the community zone may also be correlated to higher crash frequencies. Thus, an assessment of the speed data can provide insight into potential crash frequency and severity issues within the transition and community zones. Step 4: Conduct Crash Analysis The fourth step in the process is to use the straight-line diagram tool (or similar tool) to plot the most recent 3 to 5 years of available crash data for the study area as defined in Step 1 above. Initially, the crash data are analyzed qualitatively. For example, the engineer assesses if there are crashes in the vicinity of the current transition zone or community zone, and if so, it is deter- mined if speed may have been a contributing factor to the crashes. All pedestrian and bicycle crashes as well as any serious injury or fatal crashes should be investigated further to determine if transition zone related issues were involved. Such a qualitative analysis will provide a good indication of whether a more detailed crash analysis is necessary. Concurrent with the crash analysis, traffic data should be obtained for the transition zone study area. At a minimum, the average daily traffic (ADT) should be obtained and plotted on the straight-line diagram tool for analysis purposes. If additional traffic volume data are available (e.g., hourly volumes, vehicle classifications, or additional count locations), then that should be obtained as well. Based on the qualitative analysis, if sufficient evidence exists that a more detailed crash analy- sis is necessary, the crash data should be examined in accordance with the methods prescribed by the Highway Safety Manual (HSM) (AASHTO, 2010). At a minimum, the average observed crash frequency and crash rate should be calculated for the area from the start of the current transition zone to the community zone and separately within the community zone. These performance measures could be compared to threshold values from a reference population of similar sites. For example, the observed crash frequencies and rates for the transition and community zones could be compared to the average observed crash frequencies and rates for similar sites. If the observed crash frequencies and rates for the transition zone and/or community zone within the study area are greater than the threshold values, this is a good indication that safety concerns exist and tran- sition zone and/or other design treatments should be considered for implementation to improve safety. As more data are available for the crash analysis (e.g., safety performance functions), more reliable performance measures should be used in the crash analysis (e.g., expected average crash frequency with empirical Bayes [EB] adjustments and excess expected average crash frequency with EB adjustments). Consideration could also be given to examining speed-related crashes separately as they are of most interest in the analysis. Intersection and non-intersection crashes could also be separated since they are affected by different factors; however, such subdivisions of the data reduce the number of data points for the analysis.

60 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways Depending upon the lengths of the transition and community zones, sliding window and peak searching methods can be used to identify the location(s) within the transition zone and/or community zone which could most likely benefit from implementation of a safety treat- ment (AASHTO, 2010). High crash locations, pedestrian/bicycle crashes, and any fatal and serious injury crashes should be examined in more detail. This could include a detailed review of crash locations, types, severity, contributing factors, time of day, speeds, vehicle types, and other information. This information may be shown in figures and tables as necessary. Depending on the extent of the issues, it may be necessary to develop a collision diagram for the study area, showing all crashes with key information (e.g., see ITE, 2010 and AASHTO, 2010). The results of the crash analysis should be correlated with the speed study for the transition zone to identify any potential problems as well as possible improvements. Some of the identi- fied issues may not relate directly to the transition zone issues; however, some could be directly related. For example, research indicates that reducing speed reduces crash severity; however, it is not clear that reducing speeds reduces crash frequency. Research has also shown that there is a likely relationship between deviation from the mean travel speed and crash frequency (Donnell et al., 2009; Ray et al., 2008). Step 5: Define the Theoretical Transition Zone Boundaries Steps 3 and 4 are intended to assess how the current transition zone is operating with regard to speed and safety. In Step 5, the engineer compares the physical location of the current transi- tion zone with the theoretical transition zone. The location of the current transition zone was approximated in Step 2, based on speed limit sign locations. The theoretical transition zone loca- tion is based on the community and roadway characteristics, combined with vehicle deceleration distances appropriate for the speed change. The theoretical transition zone could be different from the current transition zone. The next step is to set the theoretical community threshold. There are several factors to con- sider in setting this threshold, such as access point density, current and future land use, future road improvements, future utility requirements, location of a major intersection, sight distance, safety, and the presence of other roadway or roadside features. With regard to the first two fac- tors, the community threshold should be near or upstream from where the land use changes from low-density rural to more intense land uses and/or to where the number of access points increases. According to the HCM (TRB, 2010), access point densities of 16 per mile (both sides) are associated with rural two-lane highways, while densities of 32 per mile (both sides) are asso- ciated with two-lane highways traveling through rural communities. These values can be used as guidance in determining where to place the community threshold. Often, the transition in access point density is quite noticeable. It is important also to consider future land use changes. If development at the edge of the community is likely in the near term, then the community threshold may need to be located beyond that development area. Other factors to consider when determining the location of the community threshold include the presence of a major intersection that requires slower approach speeds. In this case, NCHRP Report 613 (Ray et al., 2008) may need to be consulted. Sight distance limitations may also neces- sitate moving the theoretical community threshold away from the community. Roadway and roadside design features such as the presence of sidewalks or a speed reduction treatment may also affect the placement of the threshold. For safety reasons it may also be beneficial to include a setback between the edge of the community as defined by access and land use and the transi- tion community threshold. AASHTO-recommended stopping sight distances can be consulted to select values for this setback. The setback provides a buffer between the first few driveways or streets within the community and the end of the transition zone. In general, however, the com-

Design Guidance 61 munity threshold should be located such that drivers can clearly discern that the nature of the roadway changes beyond that point. Based on the 85th percentile speeds in the rural zone and the target speed in the community zone, the recommended minimum length of the transition zone can be approximated using Figure 4-5, thereby setting the upstream transition threshold. The deceleration and perception- reaction area lengths are also noted in Figure 4-5. The deceleration distance is based on a com- fortable deceleration rate, while the perception-reaction time is set at 2.5 seconds. While Figure 4-5 is useful for defining the minimum length of the transition zone, in many situations it will need to be longer due to various engineering and/or community factors such as sight distance limitations and grades. Human factors issues such as speed adaptation may also lead the engineer to lengthen the transition zone if there is a long stretch of high-speed roadway leading up to the community. While there may be an inclination to want to move the transition zone far from the community or to make it longer than warranted, this must be weighed against the fact that drivers will typically travel at a speed that is appropriate for the roadway design. Therefore, if the transition zone is too far from where the roadway changes to the community zone, then drivers may not travel at the desired speed. At this point it is useful for the engineer to compare the location of the current transition zone with that of the theoretical transition zone. If there are problems with speed-limit compliance in the current transition zone, it may be beneficial to consider moving the transition zone closer to the theoretical location. This shift could be combined with the implementation of a transition zone treatment or treatments. Figure 4-5. Recommended minimum lengths of transition zones. 170 385 170 345 170 305 170 255 -- -- -- 190 450 190 415 190 380 190 330 190 270 210 510 210 480 210 440 210 400 210 340 210 265 230 595 230 565 230 520 230 485 230 425 230 365 240 680 240 655 240 600 240 570 240 510 240 465 P D P = Perception-reaction distance (ft) D = Deceleration distance (ft) Total is the Transition Zone Length (feet) Notes: Perception-reaction time is assumed to be 2.5 seconds, traveling at the rural zone speed. Deceleration distances are based on AASHTO, 2011 pg. 10-115, Table 10-5. Interpolation and extrapolation were used to obtain values not available directly from AASHTO. All distances have been rounded up to the nearest 10 ft. Community Zone Target Speed (mph) 20 25 30 35 40 45 R ur al Z on e Sp ee d (m ph ) 45 555 515 475 55 720 690 650 50 640 605 570 520 460 425 610 550 475 60 825 795 750 715 655 595 705 Total The AASHTO values are average running speeds; however posted speeds are conservatively proposed for use in the transition zone straight-line diagram and analysis. 65 920 895 840 810 750 - - -

62 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways Step 6: Assess Initial Results of Project Identification Phase The results of the speed study and crash analysis taken together will yield a first indication of whether improvements and/or further investigation are needed for the transition and com- munity zones. If both studies do not raise questions or concerns, then the two zones may be functioning adequately. If the results indicate the need for improvements or further investiga- tion, then additional data can be incorporated into the analysis to support the selection of one or more potential transition zone treatments (see Section 4.3.3, Detailed Assessment). It is also informative to consider the results of Step 5, comparing the current and theoretical transition zone. This information will be useful in assessing concerns, developing improvement plans, and evaluating the transition zone after treatments have been implemented. 4.3.3 Detailed Assessment Phase As necessary, additional information can be collected and analyzed in the detailed assessment phase to facilitate a clear definition of concerns associated with the transition zone and to sup- port the selection of an appropriate improvement treatment to address the issue(s). The detailed analysis may include as many of the considerations discussed below as are deemed necessary for the specific location. Some of this information can be added to the straight-line diagram discussed previously. These detailed studies would provide additional quantitative design and operational information to support a more informed decision. 4.3.3.1 Design Study Now that a number of roadway and roadside design elements were considered in a general manner in the project identification phase, they may need to be examined more closely. Key issues to consider in this more detailed evaluation include the following: • Roadway Geometry: vertical and horizontal alignments; • Signs, striping, and traffic control; • Roadway and intersection geometry; • Roadway design elements (cross-section elements and widths, etc.); • Roadside design elements (sidewalks, landscape, streetscape, etc.); • Roadway type and function (functional class); • Parking; and • Current transition zone treatments. This additional information can be added to the straight-line diagram and/or collected in tables, text, and figures. The design elements should be evaluated to determine their adequacy with respect to current design standards, taking into account the context of the roadway and community. This information could be useful later for setting design criteria to support the future selection and design of a transition zone treatment. 4.3.3.2 Sight Distance Analysis If it has not already been conducted, a detailed sight distance study could be conducted to deter- mine if the available sight distance throughout the study area is in accordance with Green Book (AASHTO, 2011) requirements. Any sight distance issues related to the roadway and/or roadside design should be noted. This includes any issues related to sign visibility. The locations at which warning signs, speed limit signs, and any speed reduction treatments become visible should be noted. If minimum sight distance requirements are not provided throughout the study area, then the transition zone may need to be extended (including one or both of the perception-reaction and deceleration areas). The sight distance assessment may also highlight the need for additional (or relocated) warning signs in the transition zone area and/or the need for more extensive improve- ments within the study area so that minimum AASHTO sight distance requirements are met.

Design Guidance 63 4.3.3.3 Detailed Speed and Crash Studies During the problem identification phase, both speed and crash data were examined. During the detailed assessment phase, it may be desirable to investigate these topics in more depth. This could include additional data collection or simply more extensive analysis of the data already collected but using different analysis tools and methods. Detailed speed studies could involve collecting speed data at new locations along the approach to the community or within the community. It could also involve collecting data on different days or at different times. Other speed comparison metrics can also be employed, such as a comparison of the pace speed to the posted or design speeds. The pace speed is the 10-mph speed range that includes the most speed observations. The standard deviation for the observed speeds can also be calculated to determine the divergence from the mean speed, which can be a factor that affects crash frequency. These and other measures (such as quartiles) can help identify the spread of the speed data relative to the mean, posted, or design speeds. The inferred design speed can also be determined and included in the analysis during this phase. These more detailed analyses would be intended to provide support for, or rule out, selecting a treatment. Detailed crash analyses in accordance with the HSM would also be appropriate during this phase. This could include gathering the necessary information and developing the required safety performance functions to evaluate the expected average crash frequency with empirical EB adjustments and the excess expected average crash frequency with EB adjustments. If pos- sible, these equations could be developed separately for the transition and community zones. These more detailed crash analyses will provide more confidence that there are (or are not) crash issues in the study area. The detailed assessment phase is also an appropriate time to examine selected crashes or groups of crashes (e.g., by direction, involving speed, multi-vehicle, etc.). The preparation of collision diagrams for the study area may also be warranted during this phase. 4.3.3.4 Other Studies Other possible supporting studies could address access management, non-motorized trans- portation, and transit facilities, parking, and land use. Some of these topics fall under the road- way and roadside design category; however, they could require more detailed studies depending on the nature of the community. Access management and bicycle/pedestrian facilities and flows are particularly likely for focused reviews. There are a number of good resources for these types of studies, such as the TRB Access Management Manual (TRB, 2003), Traffic Engineering Hand- book (ITE, 2009), Transportation Planning Handbook (ITE, 2009), and Manual of Transportation Engineering Studies (ITE, 2010). 4.3.4 User Groups and Stakeholder Input There are many interest groups and individuals that can provide valuable input into the need for transition zone improvements and the potential issues that should be addressed. Each stake- holder group/individual brings a unique perspective to identifying the need for a project and the types of issues that should be addressed. One example is bicycle/pedestrian groups, whose multimodal perspectives on sidewalks and adequate shoulder width to accommodate bicycles are important considerations. Another example is local law enforcement; which, as the group responsible for enforcing speed limits, would also bring a unique perspective to transition zone issues and improvements. Incorporating early, ongoing, and meaningful participation by the community and relevant agencies is critical for successful projects, and for ensuring that impor- tant issues are not overlooked. According to recent research, public and stakeholder input is a major reason for considering and implementing transition zone improvements. In fact, at the county level, it was the most frequent reason for pursuing improvements (Forbes, 2011).

64 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways Given the importance of stakeholder input, it is useful to make a list of stakeholders at the very beginning of the study process. The stakeholders (including highway users) will vary for each project, but could include some or all of those listed in Table 4-3, as well as others that are not listed. Some of these groups are highway users, while others have responsibilities that relate directly or indirectly to the transition zone study area. Table 4-3 is not a comprehensive list for all situations, but it can provide a starting point. It is suggested that information be obtained from as many of the identified groups as possible, beginning in the project identification phase. This can be done in various ways from public meetings and workshops to newsletters, surveys, and focus groups. Informal discussions can also be used to gather information and input. During the detailed assessment and treatment selection phases, follow-up information may be requested. For example, in a tourist area, there may be a local organization or state agency that can provide data on seasonal visitation that could be help- ful and may influence planning with respect to signage and driver expectancy issues. Emergency response agencies and commercial trucking firms may also have comments on the treatment design. By engaging with stakeholders throughout the process, and keeping them informed, it is more likely that the project will meet key stakeholder needs and that the stakeholders will sup- port the proposed improvement(s). 4.3.5 Lessons Learned At the end of the transition zone assessment process when agencies are transitioning from the planning to the design stage, the following lessons learned during the course of implementation of previous transition zone projects may be helpful for agencies to consider (FHWA, 2009A): • Design vehicles should be considered when selecting the type of transition zone treatment to implement. • Routine maintenance of a treatment should be considered when selecting the type of transi- tion zone treatment to implement. • Community buy-in is important, not only from the community leaders but from the general population as well. • Smaller communities may not be familiar with the various types of transition zone treatments and may need some educating. 4.4 Transition Zone Treatments A transition zone should be designed in a holistic manner. Characteristics of the transi- tion zone and community should collectively be considered. Proceeding from the transition threshold to the community threshold, treatments should be selected based upon the appro- priateness of treatments depending upon the type of facility and its function to achieve a cumulative effect. In the perception-reaction area, advance warning and psychological treat- Local residents Local business owners Community groups Local motorists Neighborhood associations Police department Through motorists Commercial vehicle drivers Fire department Visitors/tourists Agricultural vehicle drivers EMS/other emergency responders Bicyclists Bus drivers and riders State/local transportation agencies Pedestrians School districts Elected officials People with disabilities Public transit agencies Environmental agencies Seniors/youths Unique populations (e.g., Amish) Other state/local public agencies Table 4-3. Potential transition zone stakeholders.

Design Guidance 65 ments should be selected to alert drivers of changes ahead, and in the deceleration area, physical treatments to the roadway and roadside should be used to induce the intended driver response. This section provides several guiding principles to be followed in designing effective transi- tion zones. These principles are generally consistent with most existing transition zone design guidelines from the literature. This section also provides a catalog of treatments that could be used either individually, or in combination, in the design of a transition zone. The treatments included in this section are considered the most appropriate for use in a transition zone and are considered the most likely to induce the intended response by the driver. Finally, this sec- tion describes two transition zone design concepts that, in general, reinforce the importance of treatment combinations and concludes with a brief discussion of treatments within the community zone. 4.4.1 Guiding Principles for Transition Zone Design Several principles should guide the design of a transition zone as follows (Forbes, 2011; ECMT, 2006; National Roads Authority [NRA], 2005; LTSA, 2002; ETSC, 1995): • More extensive and aggressive treatments tend to produce greater reductions in speed and crash occurrence than less extensive and passive treatments. • There needs to be a distinct relationship between the community speed limit and a change in the roadway character. Emphasizing a change in environment increases awareness. • Physical changes to the roadway and roadside are favored treatments because they have per- manent and lasting effects. The impacts of enforcement and education programs are more transient and less effective. • Each transition zone and community has its own unique characteristics. As such, no particu- lar treatment is appropriate for all situations. Each transition zone and community must be assessed on a case by case basis before selecting a treatment or combinations of treatments for a given context. • Before selecting a treatment, consideration should be given to the two areas that make up the transition zone. In the perception-reaction area, warning and/or psychological treatments are appropriate, while in the deceleration area physical treatments should be installed. • Combinations of treatments are more effective at reducing speeds and improving safety within a transition zone and through a community than a single treatment. • To maintain a reduction in speed downstream of the transition zone, it is necessary to provide additional treatments within the community; otherwise, speeds may increase downstream of the community threshold. • Appropriate use of landscaping elements such as grass, shrubs, and trees which change in composition and degree of formality along the length of the transition zone can reinforce the changing characteristics of the environments. • Consideration should be given to prohibiting passing within the transition zone. 4.4.2 Catalog of Transition Zone Treatments This section provides a catalog of treatments that may be implemented within a transition zone to reduce speeds and improve safety within the transition zone and through the commu- nity. This catalog builds upon the toolbox of treatments specified by Forbes (2011) in Chapter 4 of NCHRP Synthesis 412, which includes information on all of the treatments reviewed as part the synthesis project. The catalog of treatments included here is a shorter list of treatments that appear to be the most practical and/or effective for use within a high- to low-speed transition zone. This catalog of treatments should not be interpreted as the only types of treatments to be

66 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways implemented within a transition zone; rather, it is a starting point for practitioners to begin and as more knowledge is gained this list can be modified as appropriate. This list is not meant to discourage creative approaches to transition zone design, but to provide information for engi- neers to develop informed decisions. Although this catalog lists treatments individually, one of the guiding principles for transi- tion zone design is that combinations of treatments are more effective at reducing speeds and improving safety than a single treatment implemented by itself. Section 4.4.3 (Design Concepts) reinforces the need to use treatments in combination. The treatments are categorized into four groups, as follows: geometric design, traffic control devices, roadside features, and surface treatments, and are presented in Figures 4-6 through 4-15. Information provided with each individual treatment is as follows: • A description and illustration of the treatment. • An estimate of the effectiveness of the treatment, if known, in terms of reducing speeds or improving safety. The general reliability of the estimate(s) is also provided based on a star rating system, with one star (,) representing “least reliable” to four stars (,,,,) represent- ing “most reliable.” The star rating is based on a qualitative assessment of the robustness of the data supporting the estimate of effectiveness, the appropriateness of the analysis method, applicability to U.S. conditions, whether the results are based upon field data or simulation, and applicability to transition zones in rural areas. • The relative cost of implementing the treatment. • Possible contraindications associated with installation of the treatment. • Recommended location for implementation. Figure 4-6. Center island/raised median (adapted from Forbes, 2011). Treatment: Center island/raised median Category: Geometric Design Description: A channelizing island that creates separation between the two opposing directions of travel. Center islands/raised medians can create shifts or deflections in the travel paths of vehicles and often reduce the effective widths of the roadways. Center islands/raised medians can be created through a combination of pavement markings, raised curbs, planting strips, etc. Source: Adapted from Berger and Linauer (1998) Effectiveness: Berger and Linauer (1998) developed speed prediction models for center islands. The models can be used to calculate the mean and 85th percentile speeds as vehicles travel past the island. V85 = 9.194 Ln(L/2d) + 12.290 Vm = 8.020 Ln(L/2d) + 11.031 where: V85 = 85th percentile speed (mph) Vm = mean speed (mph) L = length of island + length of both tapers (ft) d = lateral deflection of lane (ft) In general, installation of a center island or raised median could be expected to reduce mean speeds by 3 to 10 mph and 85th percentile speeds by 5 to 10 mph (Dixon et al., 2008). Cost: Moderate to high for raised center islands. Low for painted islands. The need to acquire right of way will increase the cost. Contraindications: A raised center island may increase the potential for single-vehicle crashes. Installation Location: Downstream end of deceleration area within the transition zone and/or in conjunction with a gateway treatment.

Design Guidance 67 Figure 4-7. Roundabout (adapted from Forbes, 2011). Treatment: Roundabout Category: Geometric Design Description: A roundabout is a form of circular intersection in which traffic travels counterclockwise (in the United States and other right-hand traffic countries) around a central island. Entering traffic must yield to circulating traffic. The channelized approaches and geometry induce reduced travel speeds through the circular roadway. Source: Rodegerdts et al., 2010 Effectiveness: Rodegerdts et al. (2007, 2010) developed prediction models for estimating entry and exit speeds for roundabouts: 3 2b 2 b 3exit 13.8d1.47aR1.47 1;aRMINV 1 2b 2 b 1enter d4.8aR47.147.1 1;aRMINV where: Vexit = predicted exit speed (mph) Venter = predicted entry speed (mph) d1 = distance between point of interest on the entry and midpoint of path on circulating roadway (ft) d2 = distance between point of interest on the entry and the midpoint of path on the circulating roadway (ft) d3 = distance between the midpoint of path on the circulating roadway and point of interest on the exit (ft) R1 = path radius on entry to roundabout (ft) R2 = path radius on circulating roadway (ft) R3 = path radius on exit from roundabout (ft) a,b = regression parameters Speed Prediction Parameters Superelevation +0.02 Superelevation –0.02 a 3.4415 3.4614 b 0.3861 0.3673 Roundabouts increase the rate of compliance of vehicles traveling at or below the speed limit at the end of a transition zone by 15% compared to no treatment and increase the rate of compliance of vehicles traveling at or below the speed limit + 5 mph at the end of a transition zone by 11% compared to no treatment. Converting a two-way stop-controlled intersection to a roundabout reduces total crashes by 71% and fatal and all injury crashes by 87% (AASHTO, 2010). Converting a signalized intersection to a roundabout reduces total crashes by 48% and fatal and all injury crashes by 78% (AASHTO, 2010). Cost: High. Contraindications: A roundabout can be challenging for visually impaired pedestrians to navigate. Installation Location: Downstream end of deceleration area within the transition zone.

68 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways Figure 4-8. Roadway narrowing (adapted from Forbes, 2011). Treatment: Roadway narrowing Category: Geometric Design Description: Roadway narrowing can be achieved either by physically reducing the roadway width or by narrowing the widths of the travel lanes. This technique is often installed in conjunction with adding bicycle lanes or adding a raised median. Effectiveness: Roadway narrowing strategies can be expected to reduce mean speeds by about 2 to 3 mph (Ewing, 2001). Cost: Low to moderate costs depending upon whether the treatment is implemented by modifying pavement markings or physical changes to the roadway. Contraindications: Narrower lanes could negatively impact large trucks, agricultural vehicles, and emergency response vehicles. Installation Location: Narrower lanes could potentially be implemented throughout the full length of a transition zone, but more than likely would be implemented within the deceleration area. Figure 4-9. Road diet (adapted from Forbes, 2011). Treatment: Road diet Category: Geometric Design Description: A reduction in the number of through lanes (e.g., converting a four-lane road to a three- lane roadway with a two-way left-turn lane or converting a four-lane roadway to a two-lane roadway with a raised median or on-street parking.) Bicycle lanes are often installed in conjunction with road diets. Sample Road Diet Effectiveness: A road diet could be expected to reduce operating speeds by up to 5 mph with up to a 70% reduction in excessive speeding (Knapp and Rosales, 2007). Cost: Medium to High. Contraindications: A road diet may reduce the capacity of a facility depending upon the number and types of turns, the presence of heavy vehicles, and the number and frequency of transit stops. Installation Location: A road diet could be implemented at the beginning of the transition zone and extend into and/or through the community. It is also possible that a road diet may begin downstream of a gateway, within the community. Several points to note concerning the treatments included in the catalog and the information presented with each treatment are as follows: • Only the most reliable information on the effectiveness of a treatment in reducing speeds and improving safety is presented. • A decision was made not to include treatments such as speed humps, raised intersections, and raised crosswalks. Such treatments that create vertical deflections are considered inappropri- ate for high- to low-speed transition zones. • Guidance on the use of reduced speed ahead signs and stepped-down speed limits is not pro- vided. The MUTCD should be referred to for general guidance on these topics.

Design Guidance 69 Figure 4-10. Transverse pavement markings (adapted from Forbes, 2011). Treatment: Transverse pavement markings Category: Traffic control devices Description: Pavement markings placed perpendicular to the direction of travel to draw attention to a change in the roadway environment. The markings are placed in a pattern of progressively reduced spacing to give drivers the impression that their speed is increasing. Section 3B.22 of the MUTCD provides guidance for the application of speed reduction markings. In several cases, agencies have installed the pavement markings across a good portion of the travel lane, and in some cases have used a chevron pattern. Effectiveness: Transverse pavement markings increase the rate of compliance of vehicles traveling at or below the speed limit at the end of a transition zone by 20% compared to no treatment. Cost: Low. Contraindications: Depending upon where the pavement markings are placed relative to the wheel paths of vehicles, maintenance costs may increase. Installation Location: Transverse pavement markings could potentially be implemented anywhere within the transition zone, but more than likely should be implemented within the perception-reaction area. Figure 4-11. Speed-activated feedback sign (adapted from Forbes, 2011). Treatment: Speed-activated feedback sign Category: Traffic control devices Description: A variety of electronic signs that measure the speed of an approaching vehicle and alert the driver, as necessary, that he/she is traveling above the posted speed limit for that portion of roadway. Some speed-activated feedback signs display the actual travel speeds to motorists. Other signs simply display a message such as “Slow Down.” MUTCD Section 2B.13 provides guidance on the application of speed-activated feedback signs. Effectiveness: Speed-activated feedback signs can be expected to reduce mean speeds by 4 to 6 mph (Donnell and Cruzado, 2008; Farmer et al., 1998; Winnett and Wheeler, 2002). Speed-activated feedback signs can also be expected to reduce fatal and all injury crashes by about 34% (Winnett and Wheeler, 2002). Cost: Low. Cost of installation would increase if a source of electricity is not readily available. Contraindications: Signs that display actual speeds may encourage higher speeds. Also, implementation may increase the potential for single-vehicle, fixed-object crashes. Installation Location: Speed-activated feedback signs could potentially be implemented anywhere within the transition zone, but more than likely should be implemented within the deceleration area or near the community threshold. • The information presented in this catalog was developed to be as consistent as possible with information in Chapter 4 of NCHRP Synthesis 412 (Forbes, 2011). 4.4.3 Design Concepts Based upon international experience and policies, two design concepts merit consideration when designing a transition zone. The first design concept is that of a gateway that marks the end of the transition zone and the beginning of the community zone. The second design concept,

70 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways Treatment: Rumble strips Category: Surface treatment Description: Rumble strips are placed in the travel lanes perpendicular to the direction of travel to alert drivers of a change in the environment. Milled rumble strips are currently the prevalent type among transportation agencies. Milled rumble strips are made by a milling machine, which cuts grooves in the pavement surface. Other types of rumble strips include rolled, formed, and raised. They differ primarily by the installation method, their shapes, and sizes. A similar type of experimental pavement surface treatment is known as the rumblewave surface. This is an undulating road surface that resembles a series of closely spaced speed humps using a sinusoidal profile. The amplitude of the waves are about 1/4 of an inch, and the wavelength is about 1.1 ft. Source: Corkle et al., 2001A Effectiveness: The estimated effects of rumble strips on speeds are unknown (Ray et al., 2008). Rumblewave surfaces can be expected to reduce both mean and 85th percentile speeds by about 1 to 6% (Department for Transport, 2005). Rumblewave surfaces can also be expected to reduce fatal and injury crashes by about 55% (Department for Transport, 2005). Cost: Low. Rumblewave surfaces are more costly (moderate to high). Contraindications: Rumble strips (or rumblewave surfaces) may cause maintenance concerns, particularly in climates with snow and ice. Rumble strips may also generate excessive noise for nearby residents. Installation Location: Rumble strips (or rumblewave surfaces) can be implemented within the perception- reaction area or near the start of the deceleration area. Figure 4-12. Rumble strips (adapted from Forbes, 2011). Treatment: Colored pavement Category: Surface treatment Description: The use of colored pavement to delineate the functional space of the roadway and to alert drivers of a change in the environment. Source: Russell and Godavarthy (2010) Effectiveness: Colored pavement can be expected to reduce the mean and 85th percentile speeds by 17% (Russell and Godavarthy, 2010). Cost: Moderate. Contraindications: The friction properties of the pavement surface could potentially be compromised. Installation Location: Colored pavement can be implemented anywhere in the transition zone, but may be best suited to the perception-reaction area and/or in conjunction with a gateway treatment. Figure 4-13. Colored pavement.

Design Guidance 71 Treatment: Layered landscaping Category: Roadside treatment Description: Roadside landscaping is provided to enhance the aesthetics of the roadside environment and to increase driver awareness of the environment. Plants are grouped according to height, with smaller plants (i.e., ground cover) placed closer to the roadway and taller plants (i.e., trees) placed further from the roadway. Source: Transit New Zealand (2006) Effectiveness: The estimated effects of layered landscaping on speeds are unknown (Dixon et al., 2008). Cost: Low to moderate. Contraindications: Larger features of the landscaping become fixed obstacles along the roadside and may increase the potential for single-vehicle, fixed-object crashes. Installation Location: Layered landscaping would be implemented throughout the full length of a transition zone. Figure 4-15. Layered landscaping. Treatment: Welcome sign Category: Roadside treatment Description: A physical landmark or freestanding structure on the roadside that indicates a change in environment. This landmark/structure can be a simple sign with the name of the community or an archway that bridges the roadway. Effectiveness: Welcome signs consisting of freestanding structures and roadside signs are not detrimental to safety (Veneziano et al., 2009). Cost: Low. Contraindications: Implementation may increase the potential for single-vehicle, fixed-object crashes. Installation Location: A welcome sign should be implemented within the deceleration area of the transition zone at or near the community threshold and/or in conjunction with a gateway treatment. Figure 4-14. Welcome sign. optical width, has to do with the relationship between the horizontal and vertical elements of the roadway and the roadside. Although discussed separately, these two design concepts can be viewed as complementary to the other. 4.4.3.1 Gateway A gateway consists of one or more physical treatment(s) within the roadway and/or along the roadside intended to force drivers to comply with the desired speed (i.e., the posted speed

72 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways limit) through the community (Forbes, 2011; ECMT, 2006; NRA, 2005; LTSA, 2002; ETSC, 1995; ODOT, 1999). For example, a raised center island could be installed within the roadway in com- bination with narrowing of the travel lanes, and on the roadside a sign could be placed welcom- ing drivers entering the community. As such, a gateway usually consists of a combination of transition zone treatments. Whether it is through the horizontal deflection of vehicle trajectory or directing a vehicle through a narrower cross section, the treatments introduced at the gateway are meant to cause drivers to decelerate prior to entering the community. Figure 4-16 illustrates what a gateway into the community could look like. A gateway is to be located at the downstream end of the transition zone (i.e., at the commu- nity threshold). The features of the roadway environment are distinctly different upstream and downstream of the gateway. On the upstream end, the roadway environment has the character- istics of a high-speed roadway, and on the downstream end the roadway has the characteristics of a low-speed roadway. One example of how the roadway environment could change distinctly from one side of the gateway to the other is the phasing out of the paved shoulder and introduc- ing curbs within the community zone. Another example is by introducing sidewalks or bicycle lanes on the downstream side of the gateway entering into the community, signaling the poten- tial for increased pedestrian and bicycle activity. A distinct change in the roadway environment increases the awareness of drivers of the need to reduce their speeds through the community. Several guidelines to consider in the design of a gateway are as follows (Forbes, 2011; ECMT, 2006; NRA, 2005; LTSA, 2002; ETSC, 1995; ODOT, 1999): • The gateway should be visually linked to the entry into the community. • The gateway should be conspicuous and the most prominent element in the transition zone. • The gateway should be visible over the stopping sight distance for the 85th percentile approach speed. • The gateway should not interfere with sightlines at intersections, driveways, and the like. • The gateway should be located taking into consideration the likelihood of future development. • Landscaping is an important element to promote the character of the area and to reinforce the vertical character of the roadside. • Surface treatments and roadway narrowings at the gateway should extend between 15 to 35 ft in length. Figure 4-16. Rendering of a gateway.

Design Guidance 73 • Design of the gateway must consider potential impacts to trucks, agricultural vehicles, emer- gency response vehicles, and so forth. • Roadside features should be set back sufficiently to avoid vehicles coming into contact with these elements and the potential negative consequences that could be caused by such features. • Where provided, consider extending roadway lighting upstream of the gateway. • Consider coloring or texturing the roadway surface for the length of the gateway. • Place a reduced speed limit sign at the gateway location. • Introduce bicycle and pedestrian facilities downstream of the gateway. Types of treatments that might be incorporated within a gateway, or the entry/exit of a gate- way, include the following: • Central island/raised median, • Roadway narrowing, • Speed-activated feedback signs, • Colored pavement, • Welcome signs, and • Landscaping. 4.4.3.2 Optical Width The optical width concept is an approach that several countries have incorporated into their design guidelines for transition zones (NRA, 2005; LTSA, 2002). The concept is based upon the principle that altering the physical relationship between the width of the road and the height of nearby vertical elements influences a driver’s perception of the appropriate speed (Figure 4-17). Where the optical width of the road is greater than the height of nearby vertical elements, speeds are higher. Where the optical width of the road is less than the height of nearby vertical elements, speeds are lower. Thus speeds can be lowered throughout the length of the transition zone by progressively reducing the horizontal elements (e.g., lane narrowings), increasing the vertical dimensions (e.g., planting appropriate sized trees closer to the pavement edge), or some com- bination of both. Figure 4-17. Relationship between horizontal elements and vertical dimensions (Forbes, 2011).

74 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways It is important to note that the optical width of the road extends beyond the limits of the roadway (i.e., outside edge of shoulder) to features located along the roadside. Also, the vertical elements that factor into the height dimension of the road include features such as landscaping (i.e., grass, shrubs, and trees), street signs and the poles that support the signs, light poles, wel- come signs, and buildings. In many ways the optical width concept is complementary to the gateway treatment discussed above. The optical width of the roadway should be reduced throughout the length of the tran- sition zone, and it should be at the gateway where the vertical elements achieve their greatest dominance. 4.4.4 Community Zone Treatments As one of the guiding principles indicates, to maintain a reduction in speed downstream of the community threshold, it may be necessary to provide additional treatments within the community. Types of treatments that may be implemented within the community include road diets; various traffic calming treatments such as bulbout/curb extensions, center islands, neckdowns/chokers; on-street parking; and streetscaping. Traffic calming treatments that create vertical deflections such as speed humps, raised crosswalks, and raised intersections could potentially be considered for implementation within the community as well, but should be installed with caution. There are a number of relevant references for guidance in implementing traffic calming in the community zone. Two of these include Traffic Calming: State of the Practice (Ewing, 1999) and U.S. Traffic Calming Manual (Ewing and Brown, 2009). There are also numerous state and local agencies that have adopted traffic calming manuals, guidelines, and standards. These documents should be consulted during the planning and design of speed reduction treatments within the community zone. 4.4.5 Examples of Implemented Transition Zone Treatments Associated with a single pilot project to reduce speeds through small rural communities in Iowa, a range of transition zone treatments was installed near the communities of Union, Roland, Dexter, and Slater (Hallmark et al., 2007; FHWA, 2009A). Gateway treatments were installed in Union and Roland. In Union, the treatments installed in combination to create the gateways included transverse pavement markings, center islands, and speed-activated feedback signs. In Roland, individual treatments incorporated into the gateways included transverse pave- ment markings, roadway narrowing, and lettered pavement markings. In Dexter, a combination of colored pavement and lettered pavement markings were installed, and in Slater the individual treatments installed included a center island/raised median, a speed-activated feedback sign, and lettered pavement markings. The effectiveness of these transition zone treatments to reduce speeds into the respective towns ranged to some degree. In general, even the most effective treatments only reduced mean and 85th percentile speeds by a modest amount. To obtain more detailed information on this transition zone pilot project in Iowa, refer to Evaluation of Gateway and Low Cost Traffic Calming Treatments for Major Routes in Small Rural Communities (Hallmark et al., 2007) and TechBrief: Traffic Calming on Main Roads Through Rural Communities (FHWA, 2009A). 4.4.6 Working Example of Transition Zone Design This section provides a working example of how one would design a transition zone follow- ing the steps of the project identification phase as outlined in Section 4.3.2 and considering the catalog of treatments provided in Section 4.4.2. The example makes use of the straight-line

Design Guidance 75 diagram tool and is based upon an actual location and real data. The example also illustrates that the guidelines presented in this document should not be followed as a “cookbook”; rather, the analyst/designer must exercise engineering judgment, especially when data are limited or when field conditions fall outside the boundaries of recommended methodology. The location for this example is a small rural community with a population of 1,200. A rural two-lane highway approaches and runs through the middle of the community. The upper speed limit in the rural area approaching the community is 65 mph, and the speed limit through the community is 30 mph. Figure 4-18 shows a straight-line diagram of the site, complete with the relevant data. The objective of this example is to assess whether the existing transition zone has speed-limit compliance or safety issues of a magnitude that may require one or more transition zone treatments and to recommend potential treatment(s) for installation as appropriate. The following demonstrates the proposed steps of the project identification phase. Step 1: Define Study Area and Referencing System The first step is to define the geographic extents of the study area and the referencing system to be used. For this example, the first cross street within the community will serve as the origin (i.e., the “zero” point) for referencing purposes, and the study area is defined to run from 3,500 ft upstream of the zero point to 1,000 ft downstream of it. As illustrated in the next step, the defined study area extends from the rural zone, through the transition zone, and into the community. The road is fairly flat and straight, as evidenced by the vertical elevation, vertical grades, and curve radius portions of the straight-line diagram in Figure 4-18. Site characteristic Reference location Upstream end of study area 3,500 ft First cross street within community 0 ft Downstream end of study area –1,000 ft Step 2: Identify Current Transition Zone Boundaries The second step is to identify the current transition zone based on the locations of the speed limit signs and advance warning signs. At the zero point, as shown in the speed portion of the straight-line diagram, the posted speed is 30 mph. At approximately 2,200 ft upstream of the intersection (i.e., “zero” point), a 50-mph speed limit sign indicates the first reduction in posted speed, and at 900 ft upstream of the intersection a 30-mph speed limit sign is posted. The road is relatively straight and flat, indicating that the speed limit signs should be clearly visible to drivers. There are no advance warning signs. It is assumed that the speed limit signs, given their size and location, could be observed approximately 300 ft upstream and therefore that value is used for the start of the current transition zone boundary, an estimated 2,500 ft upstream of the zero point. Similarly, the end of the current transition zone is estimated to be 200 ft downstream of the 30-mph speed limit sign, or 700 upstream of the zero point. It is also notable that the paved shoulders widen from 4 to 12 ft in the vicinity of the 50-mph speed drop. The grey portion of the straight-line diagram in Figure 4-18 illustrates the current transition zone boundaries based upon the positions of the existing speed limit signs and current field conditions. Site characteristic Reference location Initial transition threshold 2,500 ft 50-mph speed limit sign 2,200 ft 30-mph speed limit sign 900 ft Initial community threshold 700 ft

Figure 4-18. Straight-line diagram for example study site.

Design Guidance 77 Step 3: Conduct Speed-Limit Compliance Study The third step is to assess compliance with the current posted speed limits. In this example, speed data were collected using traffic classifiers positioned at approximately 2,400 ft, 450 ft, and 20 ft within the study area (as recommended in Figure 4-4). Additional speed data were also available between 2,300 and 1,000 ft within the study area. Based upon the available speed data and through interpolation, the measured mean and 85th percentile speeds are illustrated on the speed portion of the straight-line diagram. In the absence of knowledge of a design speed or inferred design speed, the posted speed is used by itself for comparison. The speed graph shows that at the zero point, the mean speed matches the posted speed, while the 85th percentile speed is 4 mph above the posted speed, but at 700 ft at the current transition zone downstream boundary (i.e., the current community threshold), the mean speed is 6 to 7 mph higher than the posted speed, and the 85th percentile speed is approximately 10 mph above the posted speed. This latter difference leads to the conclusion that the transition zone is worth inves- tigating further. Step 4: Conduct Crash Analysis The fourth step is to conduct a crash analysis. The crash portion of the straight-line diagram shows 5 years worth of reported crashes for the study segment, categorized by severity. Nine crashes were recorded: seven classified as property-damage only and two classified as injury. No fatal crashes were reported. As the diagram illustrates, two of the reported crashes occurred in the current transition zone, one near the start of the current transition zone (animal collision) and one near the end of the current transition zone (opposite-direction sideswipe). Most of the crashes, however, occurred in the community zone. The crash rate portion of the straight-line diagram illustrates a sliding window of crash rates (300-ft window incrementally moved 100 ft) computed based on the crash data in the crashes graph and the traffic volume data in the ADT graph. The crash rate is highest downstream of the current transition zone. The graph also includes the average rate for similar roads (obtained from state records), and shows that nowhere does the crash rate for the study site exceed the statewide average. In this instance, an additional statistical threshold rate was not derived. Based upon the crash analysis, this site operates relatively safely compared to similar sites. Step 5: Define the Theoretical Transition Zone Boundaries The fifth step is to define the theoretical transition zone boundaries. This step begins with setting the community threshold. Access density is suggested as a measure that can be used to help identify this location. The access points’ portion of the straight-line diagram quantifies the location and numbers of driveways along the study segment. Using an increase in access density from 16 per mile to 32 per mile as an indicator (as sug- gested), it can be seen in the access density graph that density begins to increase from a more rural spacing approximately 600 ft upstream of the zero point, crossing the 32-per-mile value approximately 250 ft upstream of the zero point. The edge of the community can therefore be thought of as somewhere within this 350-ft range. Examining the aerial photo in this range, a reasonable location for the edge of the community is the first access point in town past the bridge, located approximately 450 ft upstream of the zero point. In accordance with the recom- mended guidelines, a setback is added to locate the community threshold. In this case, a setback of 250 ft was employed to match the stopping sight distance for an assumed design speed of 35 mph (posted speed of 30 mph + 5 mph). Thus the theoretical community threshold is located 700 ft upstream of the zero point, corresponding to the bridge leading into the town. This com- munity threshold becomes the downstream boundary of the theoretical transition zone.

78 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways Next, the analyst defines the upstream boundary of the theoretical transition zone using the values in Figure 4-5. Based on the rural zone 85th percentile speed of 64 mph (posted speed limit of 65 mph) and the community zone posted speed limit of 30 mph, a total transition zone length of 840 ft is selected (240 ft of perception-reaction distance plus 600 ft of deceleration distance). This places the upstream boundary of the transition zone (i.e., the transition threshold) approxi- mately 1,540 ft upstream of the zero point. This results in a theoretical transition zone that is considerably shorter than the current tran- sition zone. The current and theoretical transition zones have the same downstream endpoints (i.e., community thresholds); however, the theoretical transition zone begins approximately 960 ft downstream from the current transition zone. The 50-mph speed limit sign is approxi- mately 660 feet upstream from the theoretical transition threshold. The 30-mph speed limit sign is located approximately 400 ft downstream from the border between the theoretical perception-reaction area and the deceleration area and 200 ft upstream from the community threshold. The differences between these zones indicate that adjustments may be warranted as discussed further below. Site characteristic Reference location Theoretical transition threshold 1,540 ft Theoretical border between P-R area and decel. area 1,300 ft Theoretical community threshold 700 ft Step 6: Assess Initial Results of Project Identification Phase In this final step the results of the speed and crash analyses taken together will yield a first indication of whether improvements and/or further investigation are needed for the transition and community zones. In this example only one property-damage only crash was reported within the theoretical transition zone, and nowhere along the study segment did the reported crash rate exceed the statewide rate. However, at the end of the theoretical transition zone, the 85th percen- tile speed exceeds the community target speed by approximately 10 mph, and the 85th percentile speed remains above the posted speed through the community by approximately 4 mph. Given these results, it should be left to engineering judgment as to whether further investigation is nec- essary. If further investigation is decided upon, the analyst could next perform a more detailed assessment, as described in Section 4.3.3, potentially including a design study, sight distance anal- ysis, more detailed speed/crash studies, and other types of studies as appropriate to the site. Most likely the study would focus on simple measures to increase speed compliance further in advance of the community, since extensive safety countermeasures do not appear to be warranted. One area for design consideration is signage and striping. It may be possible given the length differences between the current and theoretical transition zones to tighten the transition zone, while increasing drivers’ awareness that they are entering a community. For example, consid- eration could be given to shifting the 50-mph speed limit sign closer to the boundary of the perception-reaction and deceleration areas (1,300 ft from the zero point). In conjunction with this change, a Reduced Speed Limit Ahead warning sign could be installed near the start of the theo- retical transition threshold (1,540 ft from the zero point). In keeping with the deceleration table, at least 380 feet should be provided between the 50-mph and 30-mph speed limit signs. The current 30-mph speed limit sign location is 400 ft from the potential new 50-mph sign location, so it may not be necessary to move the 30-mph sign. However, a welcome sign indicating entrance into the community may be considered in the vicinity of the community threshold (in the vicinity of the bridge) to reinforce the need for a reduced speed. In addition to the sign changes, it may be beneficial to narrow the lanes from 12 ft to 11 ft throughout the deceleration area (leading up to the bridge) to promote speed reduction. Trans-

Design Guidance 79 verse pavement markings in the travel way and/or in the shoulder areas may also be considered, starting at the speed reduction warning sign and continuing into the deceleration area. If these improvements are determined not to be sufficient to achieve speed compliance at the community threshold, the highway geometry is such that a number of other options could be considered. These could be modest changes such as colored pavement or rumble strips (in the perception-reaction area and possibly extending into the deceleration area), or they could take the form of a comprehensive package of improvements. One more extensive option would be to create a gateway treatment. This could involve landscaping leading up to the gateway, both to indicate the change in character and to “narrow” the roadway. A special pavement treatment, bike lanes, or a walking trail could also be considered. It could also involve either a painted or raised median, though safety related to the horizontal deflection may be an issue due to the proximity of the bridge and stream. A welcome sign would also be a likely part of a gateway. Figure 4-19 illus- trates several of the suggested transition zone treatments for consideration at this example study site. Note that if a gateway treatment was installed, it would likely require moving the existing 30-mph speed limit sign slightly upstream such that it would be positioned at the beginning of the gateway. 4.5 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Transition Zone Treatments Following the installation of a transition zone treatment or combinations of treatments (e.g., a gateway), it is suggested that the effectiveness of the transition zone treatment(s) be evaluated. The primary purpose of such an evaluation would be to confirm that driver behavior through the transition zone and community zone is functioning as intended by the design, and that the project improved the safety experience through the study area rather than having a nega- tive impact. Based on the evaluation, it can be determined whether additional improvements are necessary within the study area, and as a secondary benefit, the evaluation results can be shared and/or combined with similar projects to improve the knowledge and understanding of the effectiveness of the respective type of transition zone treatment. The primary type of study design to evaluate the effectiveness of a treatment in reducing speeds and crash frequency or severity would be an observational before/after study. 50 mph sign Reduced Speed Limit Ahead Existing 30 mph signNarrow Lanes Transverse Pavement Markings or Rumble Strips Possible Gateway TreatmentLandscaping Welcome Sign Figure 4-19. Suggested transition zone treatments to consider at example study site.

80 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways To conduct a before/after study, it is critical that the evaluation process/methodology be con- sidered prior to construction of the transition zone treatment. Ideally, the speed and crash data gathered during the project identification phase could be used as the before period data for the analysis; otherwise, the same type of information would have to be collected/gathered a second time for the evaluation process. The following sections describe the general approaches for con- ducting a before/after speed study and a before/after crash analysis to determine the effectiveness of an implemented transition zone treatment. 4.5.1 Before/After Speed Study The primary objective of a before/after speed study of a transition zone treatment is to determine if speeds through the transition zone and community have been reduced to a level consistent with the desired speed. Section 4.3.2 (Step 3: Conduct Speed-Limit Compliance Study) describes the rec- ommended locations for collecting speed data prior to installation of a treatment. A minimum of three locations for collecting speed data are recommended: upstream of the transition zone near the transition threshold, downstream of the transition zone near the community threshold, and within the community. As resources are available, speed data can be collected at additional locations along the study area to gain more detailed information on driver behavior through the study area. In selecting the locations to collect speed data during the before period, the key is to select relevant locations with respect to the transition zone boundaries, but also locations at which speed data could be collected at the exact same locations along the roadway after installation of the transition zone treatment. Issues to be considered when selecting locations for speed data collection include the following: • Whether installation of the treatment will prohibit collecting speed data at the same location(s) in the after period. • Whether it is desirable to collect speed data upstream or downstream of certain transition zone treatments. • Whether the locations are away from influence of upstream or downstream intersections. If the transition zone itself is proposed to be moved as part of the treatment project, it may be necessary to collect additional speed data at the future transition zone and community thresholds, even if they are quite different than the current thresholds. The primary measures used to assess the effectiveness of a transition zone treatment in reduc- ing speeds from the before period to the after period include the following: • The percentage of vehicles in compliance with the posted speed limit at the end of the transi- tion zone. • The mean speed, 85th percentile speed, and overall speed distribution in comparison to the posted speed limit at the end of the transition zone. • The percentage of vehicles in compliance with the posted speed limit within the community. • The mean speed, 85th percentile speed, and overall speed distribution in comparison to the posted speed limit within the community. Generalized linear models with the appropriate distributional assumption can be used to evaluate the before to after effect on the respective measure of effectiveness. In this type of speed study, in most cases only speeds of free-flowing vehicles should be included in the analysis. If there is a high percentage of trucks in the traffic stream, consider- ation should be given to analyzing speeds of passenger cars and trucks separately, and combined. The temporal effect of the treatment should also be assessed as part of a before/after speed study. Consideration should be given to collecting speed data approximately 3, 6, and 12 months after installation of the treatment to more properly assess the long-term effectiveness of the

Design Guidance 81 treatment in reducing speeds. It is possible that speeds may be reduced in the short term follow- ing installation of a treatment, but as drivers become accustomed to the treatment over time, speeds may increase to the same levels as before installation of the treatment. 4.5.2 Before/After Safety Study The primary objective of a before/after safety study of a transition zone treatment is to assess whether the treatment improved the crash experience in the transition and community zones. Sev- eral of the key first steps in an evaluation are to define the study area and the boundaries of the transition and community zones. These likely would have been defined during the project identifi- cation phase, and it is important that the boundaries of the overall study area and the boundaries of the transition and community zones are the same for both the before and after period so that direct comparisons of the crash data before and after treatment can be made. If the transition zone bound- aries are adjusted as part of the treatment project, it may be necessary to include a portion of the roadway upstream of the transition zone as part of the safety study (either in the before period or the after period) so the boundaries of the overall study area are the same from before to after. Ideally, 3 to 5 years of crash data for the before period are available for the analysis, and 3 to 5 years of after data. Initially, the crash data should be analyzed qualitatively. The crash data can be summarized to determine trends before and after related to the following: • The overall frequency of speed-related crashes. • Where the crashes occurred in relation to the location of the transition zone treatment(s). • The distribution of crash types across the study area. • The severity distribution of crashes. A detailed quantitative analysis of the crash data should be completed in accordance with methods described in the HSM (AASHTO, 2010). This requires inclusion of non-treatment sites in the analysis in one of two ways. An empirical Bayes (EB) methodology using safety performance functions (SPFs) developed using data from non-treatment sites can be used to compare the observed after crash frequency to the expected average after crash frequency esti- mated with the EB method. This approach is preferred because it compensates for regression- to-the-mean bias. Alternatively, a before/after study using the comparison group method could also be utilized. The comparison group allows consideration of general trends in crash frequency or severity whose causes may be unknown, but which are assumed to influence crash frequency and severity at the treatment site and comparison sites equally. Selection of an appropriate com- parison group is key to the evaluation. Yearly traffic volume data are also key to the analysis to account for varying traffic volumes across the study period. Several key decisions that need to be made regarding the analysis of crash data are as follows: • Will the analysis focus only on speed-related crashes or will it incorporate all crashes? From a conceptual viewpoint, the analysis should focus only on speed-related crashes, but from a practical standpoint, sample size issues arise if the analysis is limited to speed-related crashes. • Will the analysis include both intersection and non-intersection (i.e., segment) related crashes? Both intersection and non-intersection crashes can be highly dependent upon speed, but the intersection crashes also include factors beyond the influence of the treatment. Again, sample size issues may become more pronounced if intersection crashes are not included in the analy- sis. Also, separate SPFs are typically used to predict intersection and non-intersection crashes. • Whether crashes in the transition zone will be analyzed separately from crashes that occurred in the community zone. The roadway characteristics should be distinctively different for tran- sition zones and community zones, which suggests that the two zones should be analyzed separately at first and then analyzed together. This approach requires the use of separate SPFs in the analysis for the two zones.

82 Design Guidance for High-Speed to Low-Speed transition Zones for Rural Highways 4.5.3 Lessons Learned In addition to the science-based approaches to evaluating the effectiveness of a transition zone treatment/project in reducing speeds and crash frequency/severity, consideration should also be given to collecting additional knowledge and understanding about the effectiveness of a transition zone project by gathering input from those stakeholders most affected by the treatment. For example, interviews could be conducted with public citizens, law enforcement, emergency responders (i.e., fire and ambulance personnel), personnel for towing agencies, and DOT maintenance personnel to gather their opinions of the project, how it has affected their daily job routines/activities either directly or indirectly, etc. The lessons learned from these various stakeholders could potentially be used to improve an existing project that was recently implemented and/or improve the planning and design processes of future transition zone projects. 4.5.4 Evaluating a Single Project A before/after evaluation can be conducted for a single project at a specific site to determine its effectiveness in reducing speeds and crash frequency or severity. The evaluation results provide an estimate of the effectiveness of the treatment at that particular site. The results of such evalu- ations for a single site are of interest for many highway agencies. However, the results from an evaluation of a single site are not very accurate (AASHTO, 2010). Combining results for groups of similar projects provides a better estimate of the overall effectiveness of a treatment. Effectiveness evaluations of groups of similar projects are of inter- est to highway agencies monitoring their improvement projects. As more transition zone treat- ments of a similar type are installed, effectiveness evaluations across sites will improve future decision making. 4.6 Legal/Liability Issues According to ITE’s Traffic Calming: State of the Practice (Ewing, 1999), there have been few major government liability issues involving traffic calming. It is expected that transition zone treatments will similarly have few major issues as long as the responsible government agency (1) has the proper authority, (2) respects the constitutional rights of all affected parties, and (3) takes steps to minimize the risks to travelers from the treatments. In general, it is within the authority of the appropriate state or local government agencies to impose reasonable restric- tions on travel for the protection of the public. (There are, however, some states where local governments must gain specific statutory authority from the state to obtain this power.) One way to accomplish the second two goals listed above is to follow a “rational planning and imple- mentation process.” By following such a process, the government agency demonstrates that it is appropriately using its power to control traffic for the public welfare. With regard to liability, there are two main types of government functions: discretion- ary functions and ministerial functions. Discretionary functions could include choosing between different reasonable and feasible transition zone treatments. These types of govern- ment functions are typically not subject to tort claims. This is particularly true if a rational selection process was followed. Ministerial functions include situations in which government action is required, such as constructing and signing a new transition zone treatment in accor- dance with appropriate design standards. These government actions are open to tort claims. It is incumbent on government agencies to take appropriate action to protect citizens from known dangers.

Design Guidance 83 To minimize the potential for claims, as well as to maximize the potential for a successful cost-effective project, it is suggested that agencies follow a rational planning and implementation process. Some elements of such a process could include the following: • Use traffic, speed, crash, design, and other data to clearly demonstrate a transition zone con- cern that requires government action. • Develop and evaluate a range of possible solutions to address the concern. • Use technical criteria as well as public and stakeholder input to select (and prioritize if neces- sary) a recommended solution that meets the project needs. • Design and construct the treatment in conformance to appropriate design standards and guidelines, clearly documenting and addressing design exceptions or non-conforming features. • Conduct follow-up analyses to determine if the recommended and implemented solution addressed the concern (if not, then taking action to adjust or remove the treatment). • Maintain the treatment including all signage and markings. • Document the process from project identification phase to follow-up analyses and any revi- sions to the implemented treatment. By making sure that the agency has the necessary authority, by respecting all citizens’ consti- tutional rights, and by following a process such as that outlined above, an agency will reduce its potential for legal challenges.