Practitioners Guide to Incorporating Greenhouse Gas Emissions into the Collaborative Decision-Making Process (2012)

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79 GENERAL REFERENCES Transportation for Communities: Advancing Projects Through Partnership—TCAPP. 2012. ICF International. http://transportationforcommunities.com/. Accessed Oct. 18, 2012. This website provides a framework for collaborative decision making based on the experience of transportation professionals and stakeholders that lets users develop and prioritize transportation planning at all levels. U.S. Department of Transportation. 2012. Transportation and Climate Change Clearinghouse: Surface Transportation Planning. Washington, D.C. http://climate.dot. gov/ghg-reduction-strategies/surface-transportation.html. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. This website provides resource documents on a wide variety of topics, including an overview of transportation and climate change; GHG inventories, forecasts, and data; methods for analyzing GHG emissions from transportation; GHG emission reduction strategies; climate change impacts and adaptation; state and local actions and policies; and federal actions. POLICY RESOURCES Federal Highway Administration. 2012. Offi ce of Planning, Environment, and Realty: Climate Change. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. www.fhwa. dot.gov/environment/climate_change/index.cfm. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. This website provides information on FHWA research, publications, and resources related to climate change science, policies, and actions. It also includes some current state and local practices in adapting to climate change and reducing GHG emissions. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

80 PRACTITIONERS GUIDE TO INCORPORATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INTO THE COLLABORATIVE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Grant, M., J. D’Ignazio, J. Ang-Olson, A. Chavis, F. Gallivan, M. Harris, K. Rooney, T. Silla, E. Wallis, and S. Siwek. 2010. Assessing Mechanisms for Integrating Transpor- tation-Related Greenhouse Gas Reduction Objectives into Transportation Decision Making. NCHRP Web-Only Document 152, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/ nchrp_w152.pdf. Accessed Oct. 18, 2012. This document discusses target metrics, emissions sources covered, and measure- ment benchmarks; alternative policy mechanisms for reducing GHGs; implications of alternative targets on states and MPOs; and analysis tools to support implementation. ICF International. 2008. Integrating Climate Change into the Transportation Plan- ning Process. Final report. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/climate_change/ adaptation/resources_and_publications/integrating_climate_change/climatechange. pdf. Accessed Oct. 18, 2012. The study advances the practice and application of transportation planning among state, regional, and local transportation planning agencies to successfully meet grow- ing concerns about the relationship between transportation and climate change. The report explores the possibilities for integrating climate change considerations into long-range transportation planning at state DOTs and MPOs. The report reviews the experience of DOTs and MPOs that are already incorporating climate change into their transportation planning processes and identifies the successes and challenges faced by these agencies. TRANSPORTATION AND EMISSIONS DATA SOURCES The entries in this section describe some of the recurring data sources cited in this guide. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. National Transportation Statistics. Published annually. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. www.bts.gov/ publications/national_transportation_statistics/. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. National Transportation Statistics presents information on the U.S. transporta- tion system, including its physical components, safety record, economic performance, energy use, and environmental impacts. National Transportation Statistics is a com- panion document to the Transportation Statistics Annual Report, which analyzes some of the data presented here, and State Transportation Statistics, which presents state-level data on many of the same topics discussed in the Guide. The Climate Registry. 2012. General Reporting Protocol. www.theclimateregistry.org/ resources/protocols/general-reporting-protocol/. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. The General Reporting Protocol outlines the policies of The Climate Registry and required reporting calculation methodologies for the majority of GHG sources. The Climate Registry is a nonprofit collaboration among North American states, provinces,

81 PRACTITIONERS GUIDE TO INCORPORATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INTO THE COLLABORATIVE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS territories, and Native Sovereign Nations that sets consistent and transparent stan- dards to calculate, verify, and publicly report GHG emissions into a single registry. The Registry supports both voluntary and mandatory reporting programs and provides comprehensive, accurate data to reduce GHG emissions. Energy Information Administration. 2010. Annual Energy Outlook 2010: With Projections to 2035. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. www.eia.gov/oiaf/ aeo/pdf/0383(2010).pdf. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. The Annual Energy Outlook presents long-term projections of energy supply, demand, and prices based on results from the National Energy Modeling System of the Energy Information Administration (EIA). Annual Energy Outlook 2010 projections are based on federal, state, and local laws and regulations in effect as of the end of October 2009. The potential impacts of pending or proposed legislation, regulations, and stan- dards (and sections of existing legislation that require implementing regulations or funds that have not been appropriated) are not reflected in the projections. The Annual Energy Outlook is published in accordance with Section 205c of the U.S. Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-91), which requires the EIA Administrator to prepare annual reports on trends and projections for energy use and supply. Energy Information Administration. 2012. State Energy Data System (SEDS). U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. www.eia.gov/state/seds/. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. SEDS provides state-level data on energy consumption (in Btu) by fuel type for the transportation and other sectors; energy prices (per Btu); and total expenditures. Historic data are provided from 1960 through the most recent year available. Federal Highway Administration. 2012. Highway Performance Monitoring Sys- tem. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. www.fhwa.dot.gov/ policyinformation/hpms.cfm. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. The Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS) provides data that reflect the extent, condition, performance, use, and operating characteristics of the nation’s highways. It was developed in 1978 as a national highway transportation system data- base. It includes limited data on all public roads, more detailed data for a sample of the arterial and collector functional systems, and some statewide summary informa- tion. HPMS replaced numerous uncoordinated annual state data reports and biennial special studies conducted by each state. Federal Highway Administration. 2012. Highway Statistics. U.S. Department of Trans- portation, Washington, D.C. www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/ohpi/hss/index.cfm. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. The Highway Statistics series consists of annual reports published each year since 1945 containing analyzed statistical data on motor fuel, motor vehicles, driver licens- ing, highway-user taxation, state and local government highway finance, highway mileage, and federal aid for highways. These data are presented in tabular format as

82 PRACTITIONERS GUIDE TO INCORPORATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INTO THE COLLABORATIVE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS well as selected charts. All highway data are submitted by the states. Each state’s con- tribution is analyzed for consistency against its own past years of data and also against other state and federal data. The finished product is as close as possible to the original submission with only minor adjustments. Major issues are resolved with the help of the data provider. Although the Office of Highway Policy Information is responsible for the preparation of this publication, some of the statistical summaries are prepared by other units within FHWA as indicated by notes on the tables involved. Federal Transit Administration. National Transit Database. www.ntdprogram.gov/ ntdprogram/. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. The National Transit Database (NTD) was established by Congress to be the pri- mary source for information and statistics on the transit systems of the United States. Recipients or beneficiaries of grants from the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) under the Urbanized Area Formula Program (§5307) or Other Than Urbanized Area (Rural) Formula Program (§5311) are required to submit data to the NTD. More than 660 transit providers in urbanized areas currently report to the NTD through an Internet-based reporting system. Each year, NTD performance data are used to appor- tion more than $5 billion of FTA funds to transit agencies in urbanized areas. Annual NTD reports summarizing transit service and safety data are submitted to Congress. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Transportation Energy Data Book. Published annu- ally. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. http://cta.ornl.gov/data/. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. The Transportation Energy Data Book (TEDB) is a compendium of data on trans- portation with an emphasis on energy. TEDB contains data useful in sketch analysis, such as average energy intensities by mode, fuel economy standards and sales-weighted estimates, fuel economy by speed, household travel characteristics, and GHG emission factors. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2012. The Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID). Washington, D.C. www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy- resources/egrid/index.html. Accessed Sept. 5, 2012. EPA’s eGRID is a comprehensive inventory of environmental attributes of electric power systems. The preeminent source of air emissions data for the electric power sec- tor, eGRID is based on available plant-specific data for all U.S. electricity-generating plants that provide power to the electric grid and report data to the U.S. government. eGRID integrates many federal data sources on power plants and power companies from three federal agencies: EPA, the Energy Information Administration (EIA), and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. Emissions data from EPA are carefully integrated with generation data from EIA to produce useful values such as pounds per megawatt-hour of emissions, which allows direct comparison of the environmental attributes of electricity generation. eGRID also provides aggregated data by state, U.S. total, and company, as well as by three sets of electric grid boundaries.

83 PRACTITIONERS GUIDE TO INCORPORATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INTO THE COLLABORATIVE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS STRATEGY IMPACTS AND COST-EFFECTIVENESS Burbank, C. 2009. Strategies for Reducing the Impacts of Surface Transportation on Global Climate Change: A Synthesis of Policy Research and State and Local Mitiga- tion Strategies. NCHRP Project 20-24, Task 59. Final report. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. www.ruraltransportation.org/ uploads/nchrp20-24(59).pdf. Accessed Sept. 6, 2012. This report develops scenarios of future transportation GHG emissions based on evidence from the literature on the benefits achievable through different levels of reduced vehicle miles traveled (VMT) growth, enhanced system efficiency, and more aggressive vehicle and fuel CO2 reductions. The report also summarizes GHG reduc- tion estimates for vehicle improvements, low-carbon fuels, smart growth and transit, and other strategies evaluated in state Climate Action Plans. The report suggests that for the foreseeable future, $50 per ton of GHG emissions reduction is a useful bench- mark for selecting transportation strategies to reduce GHGs. Cambridge Systematics, Inc. 2009. Moving Cooler: An Analysis of Transportation Strategies for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Urban Land Institute, Washing- ton, D.C. This report analyzes the nationwide GHG reduction benefits and costs of system efficiency and reduction strategies for travel behavior and VMT. Cumulative benefits and costs from 2010 to 2050 are estimated for each strategy, and snapshot results are provided for 2020, 2030, and 2050. Cost-effectiveness is not calculated directly, although it can be inferred based on cumulative 2010 to 2050 benefits and costs. Three levels of implementation aggressiveness are evaluated. Results are presented for six strategy bundles in addition to individual strategies. An analysis is also provided of equity implications, with the primary focus on pricing strategies. Cambridge Systematics, Inc., and Eastern Research Group, Inc. 2010. Transporta- tion’s Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Report to Congress. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. This report presents a comprehensive summary of existing literature and some original analysis on the GHG impacts and cost-effectiveness of a full range of trans- portation strategies. The report covers six general strategy types for all transportation modes: low-carbon fuels, vehicle fuel efficiency, system efficiency, reduction in carbon- intensive travel activity, economywide market mechanisms, and planning and funding approaches. For system efficiency and travel activity strategies, individual study results are presented, and low-to-high summary ranges of nationwide effectiveness (expressed in million metric tonnes of CO2 equivalents in 2030) and cost-effectiveness (dollars per tonne) are presented for each strategy. For vehicle and fuel strategies, original esti- mates shown as low-to-high ranges are developed based on data found in the literature for technology effectiveness, market penetration rates, and costs. The report discusses the cobenefits of each strategy, as well as issues affecting feasibility.

84 PRACTITIONERS GUIDE TO INCORPORATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INTO THE COLLABORATIVE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Center for Climate Strategies. 2009. Southern Regional Economic Assessment of Cli- mate Policy Options and Review of Economic Studies of Climate Policy: White Paper Report. Southern Governors’ Association. www.southerngovernors.org/Portals/3/ documents/SGA%20Regional%20Report%20in%20Full.pdf. Accessed Sept. 6, 2012. This report presents an economic assessment of regional climate mitigation policy options in five southern states and the potential GHG impacts and costs associated with 23 strategies, including six transportation strategies. Federal Highway Administration. 1998. Transportation and Global Climate Change: A Review and Analysis of the Literature. U.S. Department of Transportation, Wash- ington, D.C. www.cf.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/glob_cvr.pdf. Accessed Sept. 6, 2012. This study presents a synthesis of existing literature on travel reduction, fuel economy–focused, and alternative fuel (reduced carbon content) strategies and poten- tial ranges of VMT, fuel savings, and/or GHG impacts. Impacts are not expressed in consistent terms, but rather rely on the information available in the literature. Timing of benefits and implementation issues are discussed. International Energy Agency. 2005. Saving Oil in a Hurry. OECD Publishing, Paris. This report presents sketch-level estimates of fuel savings for various VMT reduc- tion strategies, as well as speed reduction, eco-driving, and alternative fuels. The study focuses on strategies that could be implemented in the short term to save oil over the next several years, rather than longer-term strategies aimed at reducing GHG emis- sions. The study is international in its data sources and assumptions; estimates are provided for the United States and Canada, Japan and Korea, Western Europe, and Australia and New Zealand. Some cost-effectiveness estimates (expressed in dollars per barrel of oil) are made. Lutsey, N. 2008. Prioritizing Climate Change Mitigation Alternatives: Comparing Transportation Technologies to Options in Other Sectors. Research report UCD-ITS- RR-08-15. Institute for Transportation Studies, University of California at Davis. The author applies consistent economic assumptions to develop a multibenefit cost-effectiveness accounting tool that simultaneously evaluates the technology costs, lifetime energy saving benefits, and GHG reductions from GHG strategies in all sectors in a single cost per ton–reduced metric. Transportation vehicle efficiency and low-car- bon fuel strategies are considered. Transportation technologies are found to represent approximately half of the no-regrets mitigation opportunities across all sectors (i.e., those that result in net cost savings) and about one-fifth of the least-cost GHG mitiga- tion measures to achieve the benchmark 1990 GHG level. McKinsey & Company. 2007. Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: How Much at What Cost? Washington, D.C. McKinsey & Company. 2009. Pathways to a Low-Carbon Economy: Version 2 of the Global Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Curve. Washington, D.C.

85 PRACTITIONERS GUIDE TO INCORPORATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INTO THE COLLABORATIVE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS These reports (the 2009 report is an update of the 2007 report) evaluate the GHG reduction benefits and cost-effectiveness of a full range of technology-focused GHG reduction strategies across all sectors of the U.S. economy. Transportation technolo- gies such as hybrid and battery-powered electric vehicles and low-carbon fuels are included. Important innovations of these reports include the comparison of all sectors in the same terms and the presentation of results in the form of a marginal abatement curve that displays both the magnitude of impacts and cost-effectiveness of all strate- gies on a single chart. STATE AND METROPOLITAN STUDIES State and metropolitan agencies are just beginning to document the potential benefits and costs of GHG reduction strategies in their respective regions. The most extensive efforts have been in the preparation of state climate action plans. The NCHRP 20-24 Task 59 report identifies 37 states that have plans completed or in progress. The Cen- ter for Climate Strategies has facilitated climate action plan development in many of these states, including strategy development and estimation of GHG emissions reduc- tions and cost-effectiveness. However, the methods and assumptions vary greatly from state to state, and some of the estimates are highly aspirational. It is anticipated that in the future, more original analysis will be conducted at the state and metropolitan levels to estimate the potential benefits and costs of GHG emissions reduction strategies in specific local contexts. Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments. 2008. National Capital Region Climate Change Report. Washington, D.C. www.mwcog.org/uploads/pub-documents/ zldXXg20081203113034.pdf. Accessed Sept. 6, 2012. This cross-sectoral report establishes regional targets for GHG reduction, identifies strategies (including transportation strategies), and provides a qualitative assessment of the effectiveness and cost of each strategy; it does not attempt to develop regionally specific quantitative estimates. The Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments has since developed a more detailed assessment of a range of GHG emissions reduc- tion strategies. Work is also underway throughout California to assess GHG reduction strategies in support of state planning requirements. The Maryland Department of Transportation has conducted follow-on analysis work to develop more detailed GHG estimates of the strategies proposed in the state Climate Action Plan. It is anticipated that in the future, more original analysis will be conducted at the state and metro- politan levels to estimate the potential benefits and costs of GHG reduction strategies in specific local contexts. GHG ANALYSIS TOOLS The references in this section provide information on multiple GHG analysis tools. Additional information and references for specific tools are provided in “GHG Analy- sis Tools” in Appendix A.

86 PRACTITIONERS GUIDE TO INCORPORATING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS INTO THE COLLABORATIVE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Council on Environmental Quality. 2012. Steps to Modernize and Reinvigorate NEPA. www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ceq/initiatives/nepa. Accessed Oct. 17, 2012. In 2010, the White House Council on Environmental Quality proposed steps to modernize and reinvigorate the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and estab- lish measures to assist federal agencies to meet the goals of NEPA, enhance the qual- ity of public involvement in governmental decisions relating to the environment, and increase transparency and ease of implementation. This website provides numerous links to current and proposed NEPA changes and clarifications. ICF Consulting. 2006. Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Analysis Techniques for Trans- portation Projects. NCHRP Project 25-25, Task 17. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/ archive/NotesDocs/25-25(17)_FR.pdf. Accessed Sept. 6, 2012. This report identifies 17 tools or methods that can be used to analyze the GHG implications of transportation projects and recommends models for transportation project or strategy analysis. Washington State Department of Commerce, Fehr and Peers, and AECOM. 2009. Assess- ment of Greenhouse Gas Analysis Tools. Washington State Department of Commerce. www.commerce.wa.gov/DesktopModules/CTEDPublications/ CTEDPublicationsView. aspx?tabID=0&ItemID=7797&MId=944&wversion=Staging. Accessed Sept. 6, 2012. This brochure screens 60 GHG analysis tools and identifies eight as most promis- ing for application by agencies across the state. The focus is on tools that can be used by counties and cities.