Application of Pedestrian Crossing Treatments for Streets and Highways (2016)

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9 CHAPTER TWO POLICIES GUIDING SELECTION OF PEDESTRIAN CROSSING IMPROVEMENTS laws, ordinances, executive order, plans, or new design man- uals, but regardless of the method used, there are key aspects of a successful policy, according to the national coalition. According to the National Complete Streets Coalition, these are the 10 key traits of an ideal Complete Streets policy: • Includes a vision for how and why the community wants to complete its streets; • Specifies that “all users” includes pedestrians, bicyclists, and transit passengers of all ages and abilities, as well as trucks, buses, and automobiles; • Applies to both new and retrofit projects, including design, planning, maintenance, and operations, for the entire right of way; • Makes any exceptions specific and sets a clear procedure that requires high-level approval of exceptions; • Encourages street connectivity and aims to create a compre- hensive, integrated, connected network for all modes; • Is adoptable by all agencies to cover all roads; • Directs the use of the latest and best design criteria and guidelines while recognizing the need for flexibility in balancing user needs; • Directs that Complete Streets solutions will complement the context of the community; • Establishes performance standards with measurable out- comes; and • Includes specific next steps for implementation of the policy. A number of state and local jurisdictions have begun to redefine street purposes that aim to meet multiple goals for modern living through such policies and guidelines as Com- plete Streets, Main Streets, and others. Although a variety of policies and guidance were mentioned by state and local jurisdictions, Complete Streets was among the more com- mon answers for the type of overarching policies or guidance used to direct pedestrian programs among the states. Nearly one-third of states (30%) that participated in the survey for this report mentioned having state Complete Streets policies or guidance; several also coordinate with local jurisdictions that have Complete Streets policies or plans. In keeping with this trend, more jurisdictions are adopt- ing use of design guides that support a Complete Streets This chapter summarizes some of the overarching policies that frequently provide a decision framework for creat- ing safer access for pedestrians. According to the FHWA Office of Human Environment, all federal-aid highway proj- ects must consider all users, regardless of whether they are National Highway System routes. The 2000 policy Accom- modating Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel: A Recommended Approach (FHWA HEP 2012a), and the 2010 policy U.S. Department of Transportation Policy Statement on Bicycle and Pedestrian Accommodation Regulations and Recom- mendations (FHWA HEP 2010) detail how to incorporate safe and convenient walking and bicycle facilities into trans- portation projects. Note that both policies are still in effect; supplementary guidance to the 2000 policy is provided in a supplemental Memorandum (FHWA HEP 2012b). In addition, U.S. Code requires each state to develop a statewide transportation plan and a statewide transportation improvement program for all areas of the state. “The state- wide transportation plan and the transportation improve- ment program developed for each state shall provide for the development and integrated management and operation of transportation systems and facilities (including accessible pedestrian walkways and bicycle transportation facilities) that will function as an intermodal transportation system for the state and an integral part of an intermodal transportation system for the United States” (23 USC § 135(a)(2)). Although there are many other national, state, and local policies, priorities, and requirements, the following policies and guides are notable at present in terms of providing a decision framework or guiding philosophy for provision of pedestrian facilities. Complete Streets approaches have been widely adopted, and are being strengthened by the adoption of Vision Zero approaches in many large cities. COMPLETE STREETS AND RELATED POLICIES AND GUIDANCE Complete Streets are streets designed to provide safe access for all users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, transit users, and motorists, regardless of age or ability (Smart Growth America 2015). According to Smart Growth America, more than 700 jurisdictions across the United States have adopted Complete Streets policies. Policies may be enacted through

10 vision. Of the states, 35% mentioned they use the AASHTO Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedes- trian Facilities (2004). However, a number of states, includ- ing Colorado, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Washington, and Wisconsin, have also begun consulting NACTO design guid- ance. A number of local jurisdictions surveyed also referred to state or local Complete Streets guidance; NACTO guid- ance was mentioned as being used as a resource by 42% of the local jurisdictions surveyed, a higher percentage than the AASHTO pedestrian design guide. NACTO is a nonprofit organization and coalition of large city transportation departments with 20 member cities, 18 affiliate members, and four international members. NACTO is committed to raising the state of practice for urban street design to provide space where people can safely walk, bicy- cle, drive, take transit, and socialize. The organization pro- vides two design guides—the Urban Street Design Guide, which articulates a vision and road map for complete streets, and the Urban Bikeway Design Guide. NACTO also sup- ports peer-exchange and regular communication among member cities to improve practices (NACTO n.d.). FHWA also promotes the provision of complete, safe, and comfortable pedestrian networks (Biton et al. 2014), and has recognized changing needs for providing Complete Streets through policies such as Design Flexibility. This FHWA policy memorandum endorses the use of NACTO and other bicycle and pedestrian facility design guides, which the agency views as building on the “flexibilities provided in the AASHTO guides” (Shepherd et al. 2013). The memorandum goes on to state that the Manual on Uniform Traffic Con- trol Devices (MUTCD) allows, or does not preclude, many of the treatments illustrated in NACTO and other design guides, and encourages pilot testing of innovative, noncom- pliant treatments through the MUTCD experimental process (Shepherd et al. 2013). NACTO guides and other design resources are described in chapter three. FHWA also has promoted enhancing transportation equity for access to jobs, schools, and economic centers, while driving down fatalities and serious injuries (Biton, Daddio, and Andrew 2014; Lad- ders of Opportunity n.d.; Toward Zero Deaths 2015). The Toward Zero Death initiative is described in the next section. Oregon described the lack of a Complete Streets approach when planning and designing new or reconstructed roads: While we’ve been quite successful deploying medians, curb extensions, rapid rectangular flashing beacons and the like, we continue to favor roadway cross-sections that we know are difficult for pedestrians to cross. I think our favorite is the five-lane section with two way center turn lane. Because there is no REQUIREMENT to provide a high quality ped(estrian) crossing at regular intervals these features are not included in initial construction. Then local agencies are forced to seek limited grant funding to retrofit for pedestrian crossings. Some states and communities have also adopted environ- mental, livability, social equity, and other economic sustain- ability goals. 8 80 Cities is one nonprofit organization that provides services and resources to such communities and has a “pedestrians first” vision in the focus areas of parks and public spaces, sustainable and healthy mobility, inclu- sive community engagement, and open streets programs (8 80 Cities n.d.). Eugene, Oregon, is a smaller city that has embraced inclusive community engagement in efforts to provide streets that encourage more walking as well as improve safety. See the case example for Eugene in chap- ter five. Massachusetts has both a project development and design guide, and a Healthy Transportation Policy Directive, which it adopted in 2013. Although design guides may not help prioritize where ret- rofit improvements are most crucial, as roads are rebuilt or new ones are developed, design guides may be used as mod- els for what Complete Streets might look like, and to help develop a network that is self-explaining and self-enforcing and provides cues for the type of streets and interactions that are to be expected. Finally, FHWA also encourages planning and environ- ment linkages that represent a collaborative and integrated approach to transportation decision making that 1) considers environmental, community, and economic goals early in the transportation planning process, and 2) uses the information, analysis, and products developed during planning to inform the environmental review process. (USDOT n.d.) Implications for Practice In addition to funding priorities, jurisdictions with aims to provide Complete Streets and increase walking for livabil- ity, environmental, health, and economic reasons may place greater weight on public preferences as part of their pedes- trian safety program because there are goals to increase mobility and access in addition to safety. See the case exam- ple from Cambridge, Massachusetts, in chapter five for an example of a community using a design approach to achieve Complete Streets, along with public outreach and feedback as part of the evaluation process. Complete Streets is often defined as a process that aims to balance multimodal transportation objectives. In addi- tion to Complete Streets designs and planning processes, more public input about preferences or level of service (LOS) approaches that use inputs from prior research into pedestrian preferences may be used, in conjunction with safety evidence, to help guide decisions in these cases. However, quantifiable pedestrian LOS measures are fairly limited in the United States at present, but include the pedestrian and multimodal LOS models in the Highway Capacity Manual 2010.

11 Because of the limitations of current LOS models in addressing pedestrian concerns, some jurisdictions have developed quality of service (QOS) approaches in efforts to take pedestrians’ perceptions of safety into account when attempting to achieve balanced street designs. See Chu and Baltes (2003) for a description of Florida’s effort to apply a theoretical framework, planning needs, and data to QOS assessment. Some LOS tools have also been developed by international jurisdictions, including the Australasian Pedestrian Facility Selection Tool prepared by Austroads (Abley et al. 2015). However, more study is needed to know whether such tools could be transferred or adapted for use in a U.S. context. Care should also be taken to balance actual safety evidence with stated preferences. At present, according to survey results, neither pedestrian LOS tools nor QOS assessments appear to be much used by states or local jurisdictions—either to assess current loca- tions or to help assess how improvements may change LOS. There are, however, some exceptions, including New York City. One state mentioned wanting more guidance about effects on vehicular LOS from pedestrian treatments; in a Complete Streets approach, pedestrian mobility would be considered as well. There is more information about the pro- cesses and tools that are being used in chapter three. TOWARD ZERO DEATHS AND VISION ZERO “The National Strategy Vision [of TZD] is a highway system free of fatalities” (Toward Zero Deaths n.d.). The Toward Zero Deaths national safety strategy was outlined and sup- ported by two NCHRP projects and multiple national part- ners to further develop a national strategy and marketing plan for a TZD initiative (Toward Zero Deaths: A National Strategy on Highway Safety 2015). According to FHWA’s website, “The Toward Zero Deaths (TZD) vision is a way of clearly and succinctly describing how an organization, or an individual, is going to approach safety—even one death on our transportation system is unacceptable” (FHWA Office of Safety 2015). The idea that zero is the “acceptable” number of deaths on the nation’s road network was adapted from Sweden’s “Vision Zero” framework. To achieve zero deaths, it is necessary to use a data-driven, interdisciplinary approach similar to those FHWA, NHTSA, and NCHRP have been promoting for many years, but with an increased priority on safety. The TZD approach targets areas for improvement and employs proven countermeasures, integrating application of education, enforcement, engineering, and emergency medi- cal and trauma services as well as a shift in safety culture among road users (Toward Zero Deaths 2015). The National TZD Strategy outlines strategies for five key areas: safer vul- nerable users, safer vehicles, safer infrastructure, enhanced emergency medical services, and improved safety manage- ment and data (Toward Zero Deaths n.d.). According to a 2012 survey of state highway safety programs by the Uni- versity of Minnesota Center for Excellence in Rural Safety, 30 states have adopted a Toward Zero Deaths or Vision Zero decision-making approach or language (Rural Transporta- tion Safety: A Summary of Useful Practices 2012). However, states did not tend to explicitly mention TZD as having a role in their pedestrian safety practices. Implications for Practice Vision Zero, in contrast, was mentioned by a number of local jurisdictions. Vision Zero is the term preferred by many cities, and, as described in the introduction, places responsibility on the system designers, as well as the users of the system, to minimize the possibility of people dying as a result of traveling on the nations’ streets and highways. System designers include all those responsible for roadway infrastructure and operations, enforcement, education, and emergency response. According to the Vision Zero Network (2016), at least 17 cities have adopted Vision Zero goals. Many others are considering committing to this framework. A Vision Zero framework typically changes how decisions are made, because the usual assignment of “costs” to lives is no longer used in a tradeoff with mobility or other trans- port objectives; safety is considered paramount. However, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, to achieve the goal of zero deaths, it remains crucial to use a data-driven approach to prioritize projects and effective treatments to achieve the greatest savings in lives and injuries. A zero deaths vision and policy framework may affect deci- sion making for providing pedestrian facilities in other ways. Because pedestrians and bicyclists are overrepresented among those killed and injured in traffic crashes, such a framework might provide greater impetus for improving safety at cross- ings for pedestrians (and improving safety for all modes) as it has for New York City and San Francisco, as described in the case examples. A Vision Zero framework tends to give greater weight to measures such as lower speed limits, traffic-calming measures, and enforcement that lowers vehicle speeds in built- up areas where pedestrians are expected. Other measures that lower the chances of severe injury or provide more separation in time or space between pedestrians and motorists, thereby reducing potential conflicts, might also be prioritized where crossing amenities are needed. A Vision Zero framework not only involves addressing locations where pedestrian crashes and injuries have already occurred, but also suggests using a proactive systematic approach to implementing improvements at locations with a high potential for pedestrian crashes and injuries (FHWA, Office of Safety n.d.). As described in the definitions of terms, a systemic approach is a method of identifying loca- tions that may have high potential for future crashes based on

12 similarities with locations that have had high crashes in the past and that may benefit from a similar treatment approach, even if crashes have not yet occurred. A systemic approach is especially useful for pedestrian and bicycle crashes, which tend to occur in relatively low numbers at any one location. NCHRP Project 17-73, “Systemic Pedestrian Safety Analy- ses,” scheduled for completion in July 2017, is under way to assist with a systemic approach to pedestrian safety. In chapter five, case examples are presented that describe how Vision Zero has shaped the analysis, outreach, and provi- sion of pedestrian safety improvements in San Francisco and New York City. Another case example from Eugene, Oregon, a smaller jurisdiction that is in the process of adopting a simi- lar approach, describes how decisions are being affected. EXAMPLES OF EFFECTIVE PRACTICES IN PLANNING, DESIGN, LAND USE, ENGINEERING, OPERATIONS, AND FINANCING In recognition of the complex interplay between policies, designs, and other environmental factors in creating suc- cessful pedestrian environments, NCHRP Synthesis 436: Local Policies and Practices That Support Safe Pedestrian Environments identified and summarized practices that help jurisdictions be more successful in providing for the safety and mobility needs of pedestrians (Walsh 2012). In the report, more than 40 practices were summarized, and four in-depth case examples were developed. The examples were categorized into the following six categories to high- light particular aspects of each area of practice: 1. Public right-of-way engineering and geometric measures, 2. Design guidelines, 3. Architectural and urban design guidelines, 4. Planning and land development regulations, 5. Financing mechanisms, and 6. Operations, maintenance, and enforcement measures. Many other policies and local values may also guide pedestrian programs. For example, Safe Routes to School programs and community priorities on providing safer routes for children and families to walk and bike to and from school may lead to identification of needs and prioritization of treat- ments in such areas. These may in turn lead to application of successful measures to other locations that serve key des- tinations such as parks and recreation centers, employment centers, and transit locations. See more about Safe Routes to School guidance in chapter three. Jurisdictions are also challenged to accomplish safety and mobility goals while improving innovation, efficiency, transparency, and environmental sustainability in project development (MAP 21—Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century 2012). Thus, states and local jurisdictions have their work cut out for them. A data-driven approach (defined in the definitions of terms) is the primary method recom- mended by federal agencies to achieve all of these goals. The remainder of this synthesis highlights not only data available about safety effects of treatments to help agencies make good decisions, but also some of the tools available and processes being used to help apply the knowledge to create safer, more sustainable, and economically and environmentally viable communities and cities. Innovative policies and practices from Europe, Canada, Australia, and Japan are also documented in a recent report for FHWA, Delivering Safe, Comfortable, and Connected Pedestrian and Bicycle Networks: A Review of International Practices, on how these countries measure and complete pedestrian and bicycle networks (Thomas et al. 2015a).