Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
68 Introduction This section addresses how to bring into physical form the goals established in the planning process outlined in Section 4, at a site established with the guidance of Section 5, and incorpo- rating the human-centered design principles of Section 6. Architectural design considerations encompass initial analysis of known goals and data, leading to programming of functional and space needs, and finally integration into design of physical spaces and/or buildings. Architectural development goes together with site selection (see Section 5). Major architectural considerations should inform site selection, and the building design must respond to site forces, including building orientation, access, and so forth. In addition to site issues, initial design begins with programming space needs and adjacencies. Involve the various stakeholders early in design, including EOC participants as well as facilities and maintenance staffs, and so on. Involve multiple design team disciplines, such as architects, electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, security consultants, IT consultants, and sustainability consultants early to achieve an integrated building design. EOCs have many unique design considerations. Adjacencies Smooth operation of an EOC involves cooperation among diverse participants. Plan to facilitate cooperation by organizing functional spaces for convenient interaction. This can be realized at multiple levels. Some agencies, such as police, fire, Transportation Security Administration (TSA), and local emergency management may determine that a JOC is the best approach to sharing information and support. Adjacent centers will have to be carefully considered for threats and vulnerabilities. While adjacencies can be helpful, they may also represent a higher valued target. When possible, consider locating the EOC near or adjacent to functions that can aid in its mission. An adjacent airport communications center could simplify efforts during an emergency to stay connected to critical information, and allow individuals involved with both operations to devote attention to both. There can be advantages to locating the EOC near the daily work locations of personnel involved in EOC operations. This will allow convenient, almost immediate access to the EOC in the event of sudden emergencies, such as crashes. The official in charge of maintaining and managing the EOC would find advantages from proximity to the regular work area. This projectâs survey revealed instances of emergency management directors using EOC spaces or adjacent breakout spaces for daily office space. Considerable attention is needed for adjacency of rooms that make up an EOC suite, including breakout and support spaces (discussed below). Some, such as a flexible-use conference room, S E C T I O N 7 Architectural Considerations
Architectural Considerations 69 might benefit from immediate adjacency, and possibly even direct visual connection by means of a glass wall or window, equipped with blinds offering separation when appropriate. Other spaces are more appropriately positioned somewhat further from the action. Certain agencies may prefer spaces that offer a degree of separation while still being near enough for interaction. Rooms set aside to offer a break from potential tense and prolonged operations, for resting or personal communication and the like, will benefit from at least acoustical separation. Adjacency to facilitate coordination among personnel extends to the specific layout of the principal EOC facility itself. Characteristics of various types of layouts are outlined further below. One type of layout may emphasize hierarchical arrangements, and another will lend itself well to connecting teams of individuals into subgroups, for example. Co-utilization It is to be expected that many airports will leverage EOC facilities for alternative day-to- day uses when not needed for relatively rare emergency operations, if for no other reason than to reduce capital and operational costs. Despite this strong temptation, it is worthwhile to carefully consider the pros and cons of this major decision. When there is a determination to co-utilize spaces, it is important to consider how best to minimize the potential disadvantages of this choice. Among the airports surveyed for this Guidebook, a minority of airports have dedicated EOCs. The officials responsible for such dedicated facilities were quick to point out that even for facilities that had significant disadvantages, such as inadequate size and inconvenient or vulnerable locations, given a choice they would much rather accept the inadequacies of their facilities than work with idealized facilities that, due to co-utilization, would require 30 minutes or more to activate. Dedicated EOCs can start up for emergencies almost immediately. Wall displays, computers, communications, furniture, and equipment are ready for use. If devoting the entire EOC facility to emergency use is not possible, consider a hybrid solution, dedicating at least the principal, large room for EOC use, with adjacent breakout spaces utilized for conference rooms or similar uses. This can allow immediate activation of the EOC, while secondary uses that tend to have fewer specific technological requirements can be put into use shortly thereafter. When co-utilization is necessary, make sure to prioritize the needs of the EOC. The most common shared use of the large, principal EOC facility is for a meeting or presentation space. Display monitors integral to emergency operations can easily adapt to daily presentation use. Acquire furniture that will meet the EOC requirements and can be quickly and easily configured for EOC use from the potentially different daily arrangements. Create adjacent storage rooms for needed furniture and equipment. Where individuals will occupy offices intended for EOC use, perhaps for breakout rooms and the like, it can be difficult to adapt these spaces for different uses, especially quickly. When this is the case, it may be necessary to design rooms that are larger than would otherwise be necessary. This could allow a segment of the room to be outfitted with desk and files and other personal office accoutrements, while leaving adequate space for whatever is needed for the EOC opera- tions, such as a small meeting table. Emergency situations can occasionally persist for prolonged periods of time. Plan for alterna- tive accommodations for people or functions displaced by emergency operations. The EOC can easily dominate its assigned area. If it is in an area that is ordinarily not within a secured area, security measures will cut off access. The facilities within the EOC area, including restrooms and
70 Design Considerations for Airport EOCs other potentially shared spaces, will become unavailable, meaning alternative facilities must be provided for normal operations in the remainder of the building. Room Organization Airports of different sizes, in different parts of the country, with different organizational structures and different stakeholders, will be best served by a variety of approaches to floor plans. Size The size of an airportâs operations will influence the size and complexity required for the EOC. First, identify emergency operations procedures to anticipate the needs. Determine the agencies and stakeholder organizations that may play a role and calculate the number of persons from each that may participate. Reach out to these organizations to confirm a mutual understanding of expectations. List the airport-related departments and personnel that may be involved. Confirm or establish SOPs as part of the incident action plan. The resulting combined list should provide the number of personnel that may need to be accommodated in the EOC broken down by group, role, or affiliation. Consider that, over time, there may be additional stakeholders such as increased airport staff, new airlines, changes in government agencies and so forth. Build in room for flexibility and adaptability. Although it may be true that many emergencies will not require the full range of participants, it is also true that regular training will likely include individuals from all the groups, plus some backups. Construction budgets are always a considerationâ be aware that many, if not most, airports surveyed routinely remarked about inadequate space. Once procedures are defined, the number of participants required to occupy the primary EOC room can be determined. The actual amount of space required will depend upon the number of participants, the way the room will be organized, and the geometry of the space available. Smaller rooms will be somewhat less efficient in terms of square feet per person due to require- ments for circulation, etc. For all these reasons, the space requirements cannot be fully under- stood until design options are studied. However, for initial planning purposes, a rough rule of thumb can be helpful. ⢠ISO 11064 suggests 9 m2 per working position for a control center (ISO 11064-4 Ergonomic Design of Control Centers Part 4). This is approximately 96 square feet per position. Since, for the EOC, the working positions are not permanently staffed and may have less equipment, for planning purposes, this area would likely include the EOC main room and some basic support spaces. Consider life safety when planning an EOC location. Coordinate with local code require- ments. Be aware that the main room of an EOC will typically be large enough to require two exit pathways. As an example, the 2015 International Building Code requires that for an assembly occupancy such as a conference room greater than 750 square feet in area there be at least two out-swinging exit doors, separated by a distance not less than 1/3 the diagonal measurement of the room (for a building with a full sprinkler system). Layout EOC primary spaces have tended to have furniture, displays, and equipment arranged as variations of several layout categories, each with its own advantages and disadvantages, and each being suited to an airportâs needs. The following illustrations are simplified. In addition to the furniture shown below, main EOC rooms may include workstations for communications specialists or others, and space for seating at the perimeter of the room.
Architectural Considerations 71 Boardroom Among the most common arrangements, the boardroom or conference room layout, as its name suggests, has a linear central table with seats on either side, or in larger EOCs, a rectangular grouping of tables with seats at the perimeter facing inward. This layout has the advantage of maximizing face-to-face contact and communication. If the table or groups of tables bow out at the center of the long sides, this can improve communication for those sharing the same side of the table. There can be a focus (as in a boardroom) on the head of the table, where the person or persons in charge of operations can be positioned (either at the head of the table, or at a separate, perpendicular head table), or on where the principal display screens can be located. While cross-table, face-to-face communication is maximized in the boardroom layout, it can be somewhat difficult to see operations leaders and displays at one end, both because partici- pants must turn sideways to do so, and because the arrangement can leave only a narrow view aperture to the end of the table since the view is blocked at the sides by the other participants. It can also be difficult to communicate with others at the other end of the same side of the table. Small group or team discussions involving more than two adjacent participants can be challenging and distracting to others nearby. Graphic displays along the side walls can be blocked from view by those at the opposite side of the table or may require turning around to see. The boardroom layout, Figure 7-1, might lend itself best to small EOC facilities with fewer anticipated attendees. Mission Control The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Mission Control Center, familiar to many from the Apollo moon missions of the 1960s and 70s, is a fitting model for this layout. Desks are laid out in rows, straight or slightly curved, facing one wall where principal displays and operational leaders are arrayed. This might also be called a classroom layout, except that this term conjures for most an image of rows of desks facing the narrow end of a room, whereas the more common mission control arrangement arrays desks along the long axis, facing the wider wall of a room. This layout maximizes common attention to the central issues at hand, as displayed at the front of the room or as presented by the officials positioned at a head table. Visibility of the main presentations is enhanced for all, except for those at the head table who would have to turn Source: Alliiance. Figure 7-1. Boardroom or conference style EOC layout.
72 Design Considerations for Airport EOCs around, unless there are supplemental displays on other monitors. Communication between those at the head table and those at the rows of desks is straightforward. Prioritization of central focus is at the cost of ease of communication among various parties. Some participants will have their backs to others, and side by side with other team members, or possibly separated by some distance, rather than face to face. Arranging rows along the long axis of the room (as opposed to classroom style) and curving the rows can reduce some of the problems, but a certain degree of communication obstruction is inherent. There is also some inherent inefficiency in the use of space due to the tables having seating on only one side, requiring more circulation and access space overall. This may be exacerbated if the tables are arranged at angles or in a curve. An example of a mission control layout is seen in Figure 7-2. Teams A âteamsâ layout places separate clusters of tables surrounded by chairs, grouping together participants with common roles or interests. There is likely still a head table for operational leaders and a focus for critical displays. Smaller tables surrounded by participants with common duties or interests maximize their interface and can help facilitate common work efforts. During an incident, it will be natural for subgroups to develop, no matter what the layout, so the teams approach accepts that reality and optimizes for it. Focusing work efforts and related discussions at separate subgroup tables can reduce distractions for other groups. This arrangement clearly focuses on small group efforts at the expense of a centralized focus. It may be more difficult for leaders to get the attention of the groups, and some of those seated at the small tables are bound to be in less ideal positions for viewing the head table or main dis- plays. With separate tables comes the challenge of participants being separate from one another; some participants will be facing the backs of others. In addition, despite efforts to anticipate the appropriate grouping of individuals, it may be difficult to organize groups that may not all be the same ideal size; circumstances may change the appropriate team dynamic, leaving participants âstrandedâ in the wrong team. Circulation space required around the table clusters can demand a relatively large square footage per person. An example of a teams layout is seen in Figure 7-3. Source: Alliiance. Figure 7-2. Mission control style EOC layout.
Architectural Considerations 73 Radial Teams In a âradialâ teams layout, there is a head table and primary display wall, often along the shorter wall of a rectangular room. Linear or V-shaped tables are positioned along view lines radiating from the head table. The ends of the tables are left open for sightlines and are most effective if arranged as an elongated V-shape to open views for all participants. This is in some ways a hybrid of other layouts, and a variation on the sometimes-cited bullseye layout, which due to its problematic centralized head table is not suggested. The individual linear tables offer the advantage of enhanced face-to-face communication, as well as allowing participants to be grouped for enhanced interaction. The linear tables may accommodate more seats than a traditional teams layout, allowing greater flexibility in group sizes, with possibly more than one team sharing a table. The radial orientation maintains some focus on the head table and primary displays. Radial layouts may be difficult to execute in other than large EOCs with many participants. Separate tables still have the challenge of being separate from other participants. A radial layout, as well as V-shaped table groupings, have inherent inefficiencies of space utilization, requiring a greater amount of space de voted to circulation due to the geometry fitting less neatly in what is usually a rectangular room. A trapezoidal room might be designed to work with a radial layout but might in turn create geometric challenges within the larger building layout. An example of a radial layout is seen in Figure 7-4. Breakout Spaces Regardless of airport size, take care not to assume that an EOC is composed solely of a single, large room. Although there is typically such a room at the heart of an EOC, it is always advanta- geous, and to some extent necessary, to have associated breakout and support spaces. Every incident brings unique challenges and complexities, and the many participants are present because each has a role to play. Because all are working for a common cause, it is sensible to bring them together in a common space, but because there inevitably will be numerous sepa- rate but simultaneous efforts, there can be a great deal of noise, commotion, and distraction. It is therefore extremely helpful to have smaller, alternative breakout rooms for concentrated tasks. This can decrease the commotion in the main room, and at the same time offer the breakout Source: Alliiance. Figure 7-3. Teams style EOC layout.
74 Design Considerations for Airport EOCs group a space with fewer distractions. These are typically set up as conference rooms of the size needed to seat the anticipated group. A breakout room that is set aside but not assigned to any group can adapt to various needs. Other rooms might be assigned for specific agencies or groups, such as FBI, TSA, or airline liaisons. There may or may not be assigned seating as well as in the main EOC room for some or all the parties, depending on the anticipated interaction. A room immediately adjacent to the main EOC room might be set aside for conferencing by principal participants and leaders. During a prolonged and hectic operation, it can be beneficial to have space available to briefly get away from the action, to have a side conversation, make a private phone call, eat a meal, or simply take a few moments to relax. Although one would not want to be too far from the action, this area should have good acoustic separation. Joint Information Center (JIC) A JIC adjacent to the EOC allows organizations to gather and get immediate updates from the EOC manager and craft responses to be released to the media in a quiet and private setting. The square footage will depend on the complexity of events at any specific airport and the number of stakeholders who would need to meet in a JIC. Ideally, this is practiced by airports during the required triennial drill exercise for a worst-case scenario event or a real-world event has taken place and those historical numbers for JIC responders should be documented by the airport. Press Briefing and Work Area (Remote) Contrary to a JIC, press briefing spaces should not be located near the EOC. Ideally, they are remotely located either outside the terminal or, if need be, in a structure such as an aircraft hangar or FBO. Press briefings often can be chaotic, loud, and disruptive. Several pre-established areas should be designated for the media who should be informed of each location. Have the locations named and shown on a map to be distributed to news agencies so that one of the first messages released is where they should respond. Ideally, equip some of these locations with external power for media personnel to be able to plug in equipment. This keeps many of the media responders sequestered in one area, except for any organized tours. Feed the media infor- mation regularly, even if it is to say there are no updates. Source: Alliiance. Figure 7-4. Radial teams style EOC layout.
Architectural Considerations 75 Family Assistance Center (Remote) Airports need to have a pre-established first-response and subsequent long-term area for friends and families that is not near the EOC. The family assistance center is not the sole respon- sibility of an airline, and, in fact, if the event is not airline related but perhaps a natural or ter- rorist driven disaster, it is fully incumbent on the airport to care for families and other loved ones. A family assistance center, particularly early on in a catastrophic event, is often very loud and emotionally charged. Several sites for family assistance response should be coordinated in advance to allow for flexibility depending upon the type and location of the event. Facilities to consider may include airline club lounges that are secure and usually in the sterile areas, making it difficult for unwanted media to access. They could also be in a hangar or FBO facility where airfield access is also difficult for media to penetrate. There should be a secondary long-term briefing and quiet area for the families, perhaps at a nearby hotel. Arrangements should be made in advance, and space immediately reserved upon the catastrophic event taking place to secure adequate facilities in what will be a space-competitive environment with outside responders (NTSB, FBI, media etc.). Some hotels will make agree- ments with agencies to ensure that space for friends and families is available. Once national and international media are made aware of a catastrophic event, they may immediately book available nearby hotel space for days or even weeks. Considerations for short- and long-term family assistance facilities should include: ⢠No visual sightline of the scene from the facility, ⢠Highly secured, with either an ACS or with law enforcement, ⢠Large space with private rooms for counseling and grieving, ⢠Adequate restroom facilities, ⢠Access to food and beverages, and ⢠Able to support communications needs. For further information on family assistance centers, this Guidebook references ACRP Research Report 171: Establishing a Coordinated Local Family Assistance Program for Airports, which provides guidance to airport personnel when assisting victims and families affected by an aviation disaster. This report incorporates practices for planning an effective response while coordinating with different partners. The guidance is adaptable to both general aviation and commercial service airports of any size. The report includes a description of key terminology, federal regulatory and statutory requirements, history and background of the Aviation Disaster Family Assistance Act, and development of a strategic plan for creating and implementing a local airport victim and family assistance program. View the toolkit that includes customizable checklists and forms airports can use to support their family assistance program, training courses that provide an overview of the guidebook, and Homeland Security Exercise and Evaluation Program-compliant materials at http://www.trb.org/ ACRP/ACRPReport171.aspx. Support Spaces for EOC Sanitation and Hygiene. Access to restrooms is an obvious need. Make sure that facilities are adequate, accommodate all gender needs, and are accessible for disabled persons. Keep in mind that the number of occupants in an emergency operation may be a good deal higher than there might otherwise be in the building or area, and the fixture count should be appropriate for the higher number. The operations can be long-term and having shower facilities can be a plus. Restrooms should be maintained at a lower air pressure than other areas to control odors. Make sure access to restrooms does not cross security barriers, requiring escort.
76 Design Considerations for Airport EOCs Food Service and Eating. Anticipate how food service will be provided. Will meals be pre- pared off-site and delivered to the EOC, or does there need to be some capacity for preparation? Even if prepared food is to be delivered, it is still advantageous to have common break room facilities, with a sink, coffee machine, and microwave. Will participants be expected to eat at their stations, or will there be a break room with adequate tables and seating to allow for this function in shifts? If there is a flexible, unassigned breakout space, it could serve as a dining area, but beware that circumstances may be such that the room is occupied when needed for eating. Kitchen and break rooms should be acoustically separated from the general EOC areas. Resting and Sleeping. With long-term emergency operations, places to sleep, or at least rest, are invaluable. Whereas a dedicated location with a bed, couch, or reclining chair is ideal, having such furniture in a break room, flex space, or quiet room can still be helpful. Having foldable foam mattresses in storage can serve additional people if unusual circumstances demand. Private, Quiet Room. In the stress and commotion of emergency operations, participants will appreciate an opportunity to briefly get away from the action, for a private side conversa- tion, a personal phone call, or even some quiet time. Such a room need not be large, including perhaps a couple of chairs and small table. The room should be acoustically isolated from the general EOC areas. Smoking Area. If a smoking area is provided, it should be separate from other occupied areas, including break rooms and private, quiet rooms. Adequate ventilation must be provided. Exterior areas might be designated, keeping in mind the amount of time required to get to and from the EOC. Exterior smoking areas should not be immediately adjacent to building entrances. Check institutional policies and local laws for smoking restrictions. Storage. Storage space is needed for equipment and supplies for any EOC installation. For a dedicated EOC, it may be a simple matter of storing general supplies, backup equip- ment, hard copies of manuals, etc., and a small room, closet, or even storage cabinets might be adequate. It is preferable that EOC storage is in an area separate from other general or maintenance use. When the EOC is going to be used for another purpose daily, there can be a great deal more storage space needed, depending upon what the daily use will be. Will a daily use conference room, for example, have all the same furniture that will be needed for the emergency function, so all that might be required would be possible rearrangement? If not, then there would need to be a room, preferably immediately adjacent, that can hold the needed EOC furniture, as well as accept whatever furniture might not be needed during EOC operations. Special equipment, such as laptop computers and radios, need to be at the ready, including a storage arrangement that will allow them to be kept charged and periodically checked for readiness and system updates. Carts equipped with power and charging equipment can provide a dedicated storage location and simplify deployment. Ideally, wall-mounted display monitors and communications equipment can be permanently installed to reduce the time and complex- ity of setting up technology. Other wall displays, such as large aerial maps, will need convenient storage if they cannot be permanently in place. Consider short-term storage that might be needed during emergency operations. Provide locations for participants to safely store their coats and personal belongings. Printing and Copying. Technology and space should be provided for hard copy printing and copying. Include storage for printing supplies, and make sure computers are networked as needed to allow printing.
Architectural Considerations 77 Furniture and Equipment Select furniture in part based on ergonomic criteria as described in Section 6. Consider ways furniture and equipment selections enhance or inhibit the emergency mission. Accessibility All facilities need to accommodate the needs of a wide range of users. The Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) set standards that should be considered the minimum baseline. New construction and remodeling in the United States is required by law to follow these standards. When existing facilities are used or are retrofit for EOC use, it is important to make sure all facilities are accessible. There are instances where existing build- ings or spaces within have been âgrandfathered inâ if there have not been any changes in many years. There are other instances where certain spaces have not been made fully accessible due to the nature of the users, or because they were merely made âADA ready,â set up to allow later modifications to conform. Perhaps an upper level or mezzanine of an older firefighting facility was accessible only by stairs, since the users were all assumed to be able-bodied firefighters. Since those needing access to the EOC may have accessibility challenges, it is necessary that all facili- ties, including restrooms, break rooms, and so forth can meet their needs. Protective Design Once security and threat assessment has been conducted in accordance with Section 5, influ- encing the site selection, the potential perceived threats must be addressed through security measures and in the building design. The cause of the emergency that necessitated putting the EOC into service may also threaten the EOC itself. Where the site has exposure to public ways (thus allowing a human threat), or exposure to the outside (thus allowing potential natural threats), determine what level of protection will be required. It is virtually impossible to prepare for every degree of every type of threat. There are specialty design consultants who can assist both with the evaluation of appropriate protection levels as well as with the associated construction requirements. Human Threats. Some human threats (see Section 5) are addressed by limiting access with basic security systems, like access-controlled gates and doors and surveillance cameras. Beyond this are concerns about attacks against EOC facilities or against the buildings in which they are contained. Mitigation of threats by blast or by vehicle incursions is first handled by site measures around the building perimeter. Use physical obstructions such as bollards and earth- works (ditches and berms) to keep vehicles at a distance. That distance, plus the determined threat level, will determine the protective design strategies that will be needed. Walls, columns, even glass curtain wall systems can be designed to protect occupants from various levels of percussive blasts, though the systems themselves may be damaged. Natural Events. Building design can also mediate against natural threats (see Section 5). Again, site measures come first, such as avoiding flood plains. Design for the effects of earthquakes varies regionally depending on earthquake zone and local building codes. As with human threats, evaluate the degree of protection desiredâis it wanted to provide protection beyond the code minimums? What risks do earthquakes pose to infrastructure, such as water and sewer, or natural gas? Weather threats also vary regionally. Where flooding is a risk, whether from overflowing rivers or surface flooding, the EOC should be in a building safely located or protected from the threat, including assuring access to and from the building. In regions susceptible to hurricanes, physical protection can be provided, especially to glass windows and doors. This protection is
78 Design Considerations for Airport EOCs best achieved with impact-resistant glazing and frames, or done in a way that is easily deployable, such as with exterior coiling shutters. In areas vulnerable to tornadoes, it is worthwhile consid- ering measures to reduce the risk. The likelihood of a direct hit is almost certainly low, but the potential damage extraordinarily high. Accordingly, providing complete protection is difficult and costly. Glass windows and doors can be protected in a similar manner as with hurricane protection, though impact threats in a tornado are even higher. Exterior walls such as tilt-up concrete panel construction can offer a high level of protection. As with human threats, special design analysis, beyond what is normally required for conventional construction will be required to provide significant protection from weather-related threats, especially tornadoes. Protective design measures can be costly and can create unfavorable design limitations (such as limiting windows and associated daylight and views). It may be determined that the level of protection for the EOC complex itself is required to be higher than that of the remaining building, and so more aggressive measures might be taken for that area. Consider co-location of other critical facilities, such as communications centers, in the highly protected area. Basic building services are critical to maintain. Take care that emergency power is available for all critical functions from a generation source that is itself protected from threats and that has the capacity to serve for whatever extended period can be envisioned. Also, ensure that ventilation and conditioned air systems are served by emergency power and can be maintained through an emergency. Likewise, protect communications systems. Indoor Environment Lighting. Effective lighting is integral to the use of any indoor space. This is not as simple as providing high light levels, which, in fact, can be a source of visual discomfort, as well as a waste of energy. Different functions have different appropriate average light levels. Five foot-candles (fc) is adequate for corridors, 30â50 fc at desk level is appropriate for private office lighting, and 30 fc is recommended in conference rooms. Specific detailed work can benefit from up to 100 fc, best achieved where necessary by localized task lighting. How lighting is designed is even more important than the light levels. Light fixtures should be selected to avoid glare at viewing angles that can be visually distracting or reflect off computer or video monitors. This is accomplished by careful selection of fixtures and lenses. However, maximum cutoff of light angles is not neces- sarily the ideal. Visual perception is most comfortable and effective in response to appropriate contrast levels. It is best to provide general illumination of wall and ceiling surfaces so that the human eye does not have to constantly adjust between the well-lit work surface and a relatively dark background. Light emitting diode (LED) light sources can result in energy savings and less frequent replace- ment. The technology also can offer a range of color choices. As incandescent lights are phased out, personal preferences are evolving toward acceptance of âcoolerâ (less yellow) light, closer to daylight, but light that is too cool generally seems unnatural indoors. LED applications are evolving that can change color, with warmer light in the early morning and evening (mimicking light at sunrise and sunset), and cooler in the daytime. Such systems could aid visual comfort during long-term events. Lighting consumes a great deal of energy. Automated sensors can ensure that lights are used when they are needed. As opposed to occupancy sensors, which activate lights when someone enters a room, it is usually preferable to use vacancy sensors. A person must manually activate the lights, but the sensors will turn them off when the room has been vacant for a set period. Daylight and Views. In most workplaces, access to daylight and exterior views are important features of a quality indoor environment. Studies show improvements to productivity with such conditions. With shorter-term use, views and daylight might seem less important in an EOC.
Architectural Considerations 79 Protective design measures might eliminate, or at least reduce, the availability of windows. When possible, these amenities can be beneficial, but daylight must be well controlled. Direct solar penetration must be prevented with physical barriers such as overhangs, sunshades, and window blinds to prevent glare. Acoustic Control. EOC operations can be hectic. One of the greatest challenges to effective operation is minimizing distractions and maintaining good verbal communication. Poor room acoustics will exacerbate these challenges. With multiple simultaneous conversations, the most important measure is to create a high level of absorption. Typical acoustical panel ceilings are effective, as well as carpeted floors. Beyond these routine approaches, sound absorbing panels can be added to walls. Parallel walls can create an annoying condition called âflutter echo.â Absorptive materials with a noise reduction coefficient (NRC) of 50â80 applied to the upper portion of each parallel wall can address this concern. Sound masking, a low-level, constant ambient noise can help focus listening and dampen dis- tracting outside conversations and noises. While this is sometimes achieved, often inadvertently, by the hum of mechanical equipment, systems are available utilizing, usually, ceiling-mounted speakers with sound that is designed and can be controlled for this purpose. HVAC sound levels for meeting spaces should not exceed a noise criteria/room criteria (NC/RC) of 30.11 Make sure between-room partitions are designed to contain sound in individual rooms and avoid noise from exterior sources. Extending partitions to the underside of floor or roof decks above is much more effective than relying on ceiling materials, as often done in offices with acoustic blankets near the edges. Install sound gaskets on doors. Sound transmission class (STC) is a measurement procedure for sound transmission. For normal privacy levels, STC 52â55 is recommended, with STC greater than 55 for confidential conditions.12 A typical steel stud partition with gypsum board facing has a rating of STC 40. Performance can be increased with acoustical blankets in the stud space, with resilient channels or offset studs, and with special membranes. Other partition construction, such as concrete masonry, can be effective in reduc- ing sound penetration, but might need treatments such as gypsum board over resilient channels to address the full range of sound frequencies. Technology can also help reduce noise levels. Use a microphone and headsets to avoid broad- casting audio beyond those who need to hear it, and utilize breakout spaces to relocate sub- groups that might be getting loud enough to be a distraction or hindrance to others. Technology and Communications Integration Technology and communications considerations vary from airport to airport depending on size, complexity, and vulnerabilities. At a minimum, an airport EOC should have at least two monitors and the ability to display a computer screen. The two monitors should be able to broadcast both news and weather. It is no longer so imperative to stage desktop computers today. Some airports maintain a bank of laptops at the ready, keeping them charged and with up-to-date software. For co-utilized space, laptops can be kept in a cart, ready to be rolled out for distribution. Some participants will bring their own laptops. Care should be taken about allowing outside laptops to connect directly to a network. Wi-Fi access will commonly be made available, allowing access to the Internet while protecting the local network. Consider a router specifically for the EOC so there is not competition for bandwidth. When integrating technological equipment into furniture or buildings, be wary of solutions that are highly customized to specific equipment, such as displays that are built into walls. As technological change becomes ever swifter, the lifespan of technological hardware grows ever shorter. In a surprisingly short period of time, what seemed a cutting-edge merging of function
80 Design Considerations for Airport EOCs and technology can become an anachronistic curiosity. Be mindful as well as to how intuitive a new technology or application will be to use, and how smoothly it is likely able to be integrated to work with other systems. This is not a suggestion to avoid new and useful technology. Simply look beyond the novelty and evaluate the best, most usable and adaptable way to integrate such technology and equipment. A communication plan needs to be established and practiced for EOC operations. Com- munications includes activation of the EOC. There is software available for mass notifications that work well to notify individuals and groups of an event and what is expected concerning a response. Pre-defined response groups may help with early organization to accommodate an event that will be longer than a 24-hour period. A âShift Aâ and âShift Bâ approach works well with the use of 12-hour shifts. If the event occurs during the hours of Shift A, Shift B personnel know either not to come to the airport until their shift or to leave and get some rest to be prepared to come in and relieve Shift A. Ensure that only those required and requested personnel respond to the EOC. Other communication considerations are within the EOC. It is imperative there be a single, designated person having contact with the field IC. More than one contact can cause inaccurate information and unnecessary workload. Consider a designated radio channel or phone line. EOCs can become very loud very quickly with phones, radios and multiple discussions taking place at the same time. Noise levels can be minimized using headsets for both radios and phones. A custom headset should be available for everyone who would regularly respond to the EOC. Phones with visible displays instead of a ringtone are also effective in reducing noise levels. Varied color lights can indicate exactly which position is being called, such as green for operations section, red for logistics section and yellow for planning section. The lights may be on the phone as well as elevated on a pole at the position to be easily seen around the room. Resilience, Flexibility, Adaptability Unanticipated change is not merely a concern with emerging technology. No matter the degree of planning, there are bound to be changes and unexpected developments or evolving situations. Regardless of technology, new or old personnel need to stay current, and the EOC needs to be used repeatedly so that persons are comfortable with the technology and properly trained. Staffing an IT person in the EOC helps with adaptability, especially with changes in technology. The most obvious potential change is in capacity. Over time, emerging demands, addition or diversification of government agencies, added airport departments, additional airlines, airport growth, and so forth can add space and equipment needs. There also can be evolution of preferred procedures and room organization; having more than the minimum space will allow adjustments and experimentation. When space and budget allow, it is best to design some- what larger than the minimum demanded by initial projections. Further, design can anticipate potential future expansion, especially with new construction. Siting, building orientation, exits, structure, and exterior wall materials are all considerations when designing with expansion in mind. It is important that this be a stated goal in the early design phases. The concept planning section of the Guidebook (see Section 4) should be used periodically as a tool to help the airport evaluate current and future needs, and, when appropriate, to initiate the process of migrating to a different space or building a new one. The more the EOC is used, the easier it will be to assess evolving needs. Use of the EOC will develop a working culture for personnel and stakeholders to better understand when to respond, in what capacity, and how to work with each other during what is usually a stressful situation. Figure 7-5 is a checklist for Architectural Considerations for Building an EOC.
Architectural Considerations 81 Checklist: Architectural Considerations for Building an EOC Following is a simplified list of many of the important architectural considerations for developing a successful EOC. Analysis Complete data collection, initial planning, and site selection processes (see earlier sections) Identify threat conditions related to selected site or site options Identify protective design measures responding to human and natural threats of selected site(s) Consider when it is feasible to take advantage of professional design consultation Programming Identify desired adjacencies with other or related functions, such as communications facilities Consider whether a dedicated EOC is feasible If co-utilization is necessary, determine what the regular use will be, understanding that EOC function will have to take precedence when needed Identify backup EOC location(s) and take measures to provide portability of essential materials and systems Identify the number of potential EOC participants Determine participating agencies and stakeholders, and number of participants for each List participating airport departments and personnel Establish minimum area of basic facilities for initial planning purposes Identify desired breakout spaces, including both assigned and flexible spaces Identify important support spaces Restrooms Food service and eating Resting and sleeping Private, quiet room Storage (more space needed if a co-utilized EOC facility) Printing and copying Design Consider advantages and disadvantages of the various EOC layout options Investigate furniture and equipment needs with attention to ergonomics (see Section 6) Coordinate with appropriate agencies and departments to ensure security needs are accomplished Coordinate with local codes and code officials to maintain egress and other requirements Ensure facilities are fully accessible, meeting ADAAG requirements at minimum Carefully consider the acoustic environment and take measures to reduce communication problems and stress Employ effective lighting strategies, also considering controlled daylight and views Carefully integrate technology, emphasizing ease of use and flexibility Establish and practice a communication plan Plan for resilience Plan for adaptability Source: Faith Group, LLC. Figure 7-5. Architectural considerations for building an EOC checklist.
