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Page 108
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. An Update on Public Transportation's Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26103.
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Page 109
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. An Update on Public Transportation's Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26103.
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Page 109
Page 110
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. An Update on Public Transportation's Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26103.
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Page 110
Page 111
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. An Update on Public Transportation's Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26103.
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Page 111
Page 112
Suggested Citation:"References." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. An Update on Public Transportation's Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/26103.
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Page 112

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108 References APTA. 2017. “Who Rides Public Transportation.” https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/Resources/ resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/APTA-Who-Rides-Public-Transportation-2017.pdf. APTA. 2018. “Recommended Practices: Quantifying Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transit.” APTA SUDS CC-RP-001-09, Rev. 1 https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/Standards_Documents/APTA-SUDS- CC-RP-001-09_Rev-1.pdf. APTA. 2019. 2019 Public Transportation Fact Book. https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA_Fact- Book-2019_FINAL.pdf. APTA. 2020. “Economic Impact of Public Transportation Investment: 2020 Update,” https://www.apta.com/ wp-content/uploads/APTA-Economic-Impact-Public-Transit-2020.pdf. Bailey, L., P. L. Mokhtarian, and A. Little. 2008. “The Broader Connection Between Public Transportation, Energy Conservation, and Greenhouse Gas Reduction.” Prepared under TCRP Project J-11/Task 3. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/tcrp/docs/TCRPJ-11Task3-FR.pdf. BART. 2016. “Affordable Housing Policy.” https://www.bart.gov/sites/default/files/docs/C-%20Affordable%20 Housing%20Policy%20Adopted%201-28-16_0.pdf. Byala, B., S. Johnson, R. Slocum, A. Zalewski, J. Weiland, L. Culp, B. Eby, P. Lewis, G. Calves, and D. Sampson. 2021. TCRP Research Report 221: Redesigning Transit Networks for the New Mobility Future. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/26028/redesigning-transit-networks-for- the-new-mobility-future. CCS. 2014. “Puerto Rico Greenhouse Gases Baseline Report.” http://www.pppe.pr.gov/Temas%20de%20Inters/ Puerto%20Rico%20GHG-2014.pdf. CDP and ICLEI–Local Governments for Sustainability. “2020 – Cities Emission Reduction Actions.” https://data.cdp.net/Mitigation-Actions/2020-Cities-Emission-Reduction-Actions/k673-q6mx. Accessed December 2020. Cervero, R. and J. Murakami. 2010. “Effects of Built Environments on Vehicle Miles Traveled: Evidence from 370 US Urbanized Areas.” Environment and Planning, A 42 (2): 400–418. https://doi.org/10.1068/a4236. Chen, Z., et al. 2015. “Chronic Effects of Air Pollution on Respiratory Health in Southern California Children: Findings from the Southern California Children’s Health Study.” Journal of Thoracic Disease, 7 (1), 46–58. https://doi.org/10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2014.12.20. Chester, M. and A. Horvath. 2007. “Environmental Life-Cycle Assessment of Passenger Transportation: a Detailed Methodology For Energy, Greenhouse Gas, and Criteria Pollutant Inventories of Automobiles, Buses, Light Rail, Heavy Rail, and Air.” Berkeley, Calif., Institute of Transportation Studies University of California. ClimateWatch. n.d. “Historical GHG Emissions.” https://www.climatewatchdata.org/ghg-emissions?end_year= 2016&start_year=1990. Accessed December 2020. CNT. n.d. Housing and Transportation (H+T®) Affordability Index. https://htaindex.cnt.org/about/. Accessed January 2020. The Connecticut Academy of Science and Engineering. February 2018. Sustainability Strategies to Minimize the Carbon Footprint for Connecticut Bus Operations. http://www.ctcase.org/summaries/Sustainability- ExecSum.pdf. Davis, T. and M. Hale. 2007. “Public Transportation’s Contribution to U.S. Greenhouse Gas Reduction.” Prepared under TCRP J-11/Task 2. https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/Resources/resources/reportsand publications/Documents/climate_change.pdf. Economic Development Research Group, Inc. 2018. “Multimodal Urban Mobility Index.” White paper prepared for American Public Transportation Association, Washington, D.C.

References 109   EEI. 2019. “Electric Vehicle Trends & Key Issues.” https://www.eei.org/issuesandpolicy/electrictransportation/ Documents/EV_Trends_and_%20Key%20Issues_Mar2019_WEB.pdf. EIA. 2020. Annual Energy Outlook 2020. https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/. EIA. n.d. “Weekly Retail Gasoline and Diesel Prices.” https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_gnd_dcus_nus_a.htm. Accessed December 2020. Ewing, R., et al. 2007. Growing Cooler: The Evidence on Urban Development and Climate Change. Urban Land Institute. Washington, D.C. Ewing, R., et al. 2015. “Varying Influences of the Built Environment on Household Travel in 15 Diverse Regions of the United States,” Urban Studies, 52(13), pp. 2330–2348. doi: 10.1177/0042098014560991. Ewing, R. and Cervero, R. 2010. “Travel and the Built Environment,” Journal of the American Planning Association, 76(3), pp. 265–294. doi: 10.1080/01944361003766766. Ewing, R. and Hamidi, S. 2014. “Longitudinal Analysis of Transit’s Land Use Multiplier in Portland (OR),” Journal of the American Planning Association, 80(2), pp. 123–137. doi: 10.1080/01944363.2014.949506. FHWA. 2018. “2017 National Household Travel Survey.” https://nhts.ornl.gov/assets/2017_nhts_summary_ travel_trends.pdf. FHWA. 2019a. “Highway Statistics 2018.” https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2018/vm1.cfm. FHWA. 2019b. Status of the Nation’s Highways, Bridges, and Transit: Conditions and Performance, 23rd Edition. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/23cpr/pdfs/23cpr.pdf. FTA. Updated January 2010. “Public Transportation’s Role in Responding to Climate Change.” https://www. transit.dot.gov/sites/fta.dot.gov/files/docs/PublicTransportationsRoleInRespondingToClimateChange 2010.pdf. FTA. 2016. “Transit Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimator: User Guide.” https://www.transit.dot.gov/sites/ fta.dot.gov/files/docs/FTA_GHG_Emissions_Estimator_User_Guide_0.pdf. FTA. 2017. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transit Projects: Programmatic Assessment. FTA Report No. 0097. https://www.transit.dot.gov/sites/fta.dot.gov/files/FTA_Report_No._0097.pdf. FTA. 2019a. “2018 National Transit Summaries and Trends.” https://www.transit.dot.gov/sites/fta.dot.gov/files/ docs/ntd/data-product/134401/2018-ntst_1.pdf. FTA. 2019b. “National Transit Database 2019 Policy Manual.” https://www.transit.dot.gov/sites/fta.dot.gov/files/ docs/ntd/133146/2019-ntd-reporting-policy-manual-v1-2.pdf. FTA. 2020a. “National Transit Database, 2018.” Accessed June 2020. https://www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/ntd-data. FTA. 2020b. “National Transit Database, Monthly Module October 2020 Raw Database.” Accessed December 2020. https://www.transit.dot.gov/ntd/ntd-data. Gallivan, F. and M. Grant. 2010. TCRP Synthesis 84: Current Practices in Greenhouse Gas Emissions Savings from Transit. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/14385/current- practices-in-greenhouse-gas-emissions-savings-from-transit. Gallivan, F., E. Rose, R. Ewing, S. Hamidi, and T. Brown. 2015. TCRP Report 176: Quantifying Transit’s Impact on GHG Emissions and Energy Use—The Land Use Component. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. https://doi.org/10.17226/22203. Grace, J. B. 2006. Structural Equation Modeling and Natural Systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Hanlin, J., D. Reddaway, and J. Lane. 2018. TCRP Synthesis 130: Battery Electric Buses—State of the Practice. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/177400.aspx. Health Effects Institute. 2010. “Traffic-Related Air Pollution: A Critical Review of the Literature on Emissions, Exposure, and Health Effects.” https://www.healtheffects.org/publication/traffic-related-air-pollution-critical- review-literature-emissions-exposure-and-health. Holtzclaw, J. 2000. Does a Mile in a Car Equal a Mile on a Train? Exploring Public Transit’s Effectiveness in Reducing Driving. http://sierraclub.typepad.com/files/transitleveragereport-forholtzclaw.pdf. Linscott, M. and A. Posner. 2020. TCRP Research Report 219: Guidebook for Deploying Zero-Emission Transit Buses. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/25842/guidebook- for-deploying-zero-emission-transit-buses. Litman, T. 2020. Evaluating Public Transit Benefits and Costs: Best Practices Guidebook. Victoria Transport Policy Institute. https://www.vtpi.org/tranben.pdf. Los Angeles Metropolitan Transportation Authority. 2012. Quantifying the Influence of Transit on Land Use Patterns in Los Angeles County. http://libraryarchives.metro.net/DB_Attachments/120504_Quantifying_ Influence_of_Transit_on_Land_Use_Patterns.pdf. McGraw, J., S. Shull, and G. Miknaitis. 2010. “The Route to Carbon and Energy Savings: Transit Efficiency in 2030 and 2050.” Prepared under TCRP J-11/Task 9. https://www.transit.dot.gov/regulations-and-guidance/ environmental-programs/route-carbon-and-energy-savings-transit-efficiency. Mood, C. 2010. “Logistic Regression: Why We Cannot Do What We Think We Can Do, and What We Can Do About It.” European Sociological Review, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 67–82.

110 An Update on Public Transportation’s Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions Munyon, V., et al. 2018. “Vehicle Fuel Economy and Vehicle Miles Traveled: An Empirical Investigation of Jevon’s Paradox.” Energy Research and Social Science, 38: 19–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.01.007. Myhre, G., et al. 2013. “Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing.” Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. p. 731. https://ar5-syr.ipcc.ch/resources/htmlpdf/WG1AR5_Chapter08_FINAL/. Neff, J. W. 1996. Substitution Rates Between Transit and Automobile Travel. Paper presented at the Association of American Geographers Annual Meeting, Charlotte, NC. New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority. 2009. Greening Mass Transit & Metro Regions. Final Report of the Blue Ribbon Commission on Sustainability and the MTA. http://web.mta.info/sustainability/pdf/ SustRptFinal.pdf. Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. 1999. Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Pollack, S., A. Gartsman, T. Reardon, and M. Hari. 2015. “Reshaping the Region: Transit Proximity and Leverage in Metropolitan Boston, Massachusetts.” Transportation Research Record, 2537(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/ 10.3141/2537-04. Pushkarev, B. and J. Zupan. 1982. Urban Rail in America: An Exploration of Criteria for Fixed-Guideway Transit. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Raudenbush, S. W. and A. S. Bryk. 2002. Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods, 2nd Ed., Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA. SFMTA. n.d. “Potrero Yard Modernization Project.” https://www.sfmta.com/projects/potrero-yard-modernization- project. Accessed January 2020. Shipley, B. 2000. “A New Inferential Test for Path Models Based on Directed Acyclic Graphs.” Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 206–218. Shipley, B. 2009. “Confirmatory Path Analysis in a Generalized Multilevel Context.” Ecology, Vol. 90, No. 2, pp. 363–368. Southworth, F., M. D. Meyer, and B. A. Weigel. 2011. “Transit Greenhouse Gas Emissions Management Compendium.” Federal Transit Administration Report No. FTA-GA-26-7006.2011.01. Washington D.C. https://www.transit.dot.gov/sites/fta.dot.gov/files/docs/GHGCompendGTv2.pdf. TCR. 2019. “General Reporting Protocol, Version 3.0.” https://www.theclimateregistry.org/protocols/General- Reporting-ProtocolV3.pdf. TCR. 2020. “2020 Default Emissions Factors.” https://www.theclimateregistry.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/ The-Climate-Registry-2020-Default-Emission-Factor-Document.pdf. TransitCenter. 2019. “Who’s on Board: How to Win Back America’s Transit Riders.” https://transitcenter.org/ wp-content/uploads/2019/02/TC_WhosOnBoard_Final_digital-1-1.pdf. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC). 2020. “Transit Buses by Fuel Type.” https://afdc.energy.gov/data/. U.S. EPA. 2016. “Greenhouse Gas Inventory Guidance Direct Emissions from Mobile Combustion Sources.” https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-03/documents/mobileemissions_3_2016.pdf. U.S. EPA. 2020a. “eGRID Summary Tables 2018.” https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2020-01/documents/ egrid2018_summary_tables.pdf. U.S. EPA. 2020b. “Emissions Factors for Greenhouse Gas Inventories.” https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/ files/2020-04/documents/ghg-emission-factors-hub.pdf. U.S. EPA. 2020c. “Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator,” https://www.epa.gov/energy/greenhouse-gas- equivalencies-calculator. U.S. EPA. 2020d. “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990–2018.” https://www.epa.gov/ sites/production/files/2020-04/documents/us-ghg-inventory-2020-main-text.pdf. U.S. Global Change Research Program. 2018. “Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume II,” doi: 10.7930/NCA4.2018. Wang, M., et al. 2020. “Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies Model (GREET 2020.net).” U.S. DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). doi:10.11578/ GREET-Net-2020/dc.20200913.1. Watkins, K., S. Berrebi, C. Diffee, B. Kiriazes, and D. Ederer. 2020. TCRP Research Report 209: Analysis of Recent Public Transit Ridership Trends. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. https://www.nap.edu/ catalog/25635/analysis-of-recent-public-transit-ridership-trends. World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and World Resources Institute (WRI). 2004. “The Greenhouse Gas Protocol.” https://ghgprotocol.org/sites/default/files/standards/ghg-protocol- revised.pdf.

Abbreviations and acronyms used without de nitions in TRB publications: A4A Airlines for America AAAE American Association of Airport Executives AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program ADA Americans with Disabilities Act APTA American Public Transportation Association ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials ATA American Trucking Associations CTAA Community Transportation Association of America CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program DHS Department of Homeland Security DOE Department of Energy EPA Environmental Protection Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FAST Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (2015) FHWA Federal Highway Administration FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration FRA Federal Railroad Administration FTA Federal Transit Administration HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (2012) NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials NCFRP National Cooperative Freight Research Program NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NTSB National Transportation Safety Board PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration RITA Research and Innovative Technology Administration SAE Society of Automotive Engineers SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (2005) TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program TDC Transit Development Corporation TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998) TRB Transportation Research Board TSA Transportation Security Administration U.S. DOT United States Department of Transportation

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 An Update on Public Transportation's Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
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Transportation is a major source of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that are causing climate change. As communities work to cut emissions and become more resilient, they are including public transportation advances as a significant part of their climate action strategies.

The TRB Transit Cooperative Research Board's TCRP Research Report 226: An Update on Public Transportation's Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions provides updated national analysis of public transportation’s role as a climate solution by documenting its 2018 GHG impacts.

Supplemental materials to the report include three factsheets (Fact Sheet 1, Fact Sheet 2, and Fact Sheet 3); various key findings regarding transit as a climate solution; a PowerPoint presentation summarizing the findings and research and a template for transit agencies to add their own data for climate communications; and a simple spreadsheet tool that provides this study’s 2018 GHG impact findings by transit agency and allows the user to apply several of the future scenarios to see how their transit agency’s GHG impacts change with electrification, clean power, and ridership increases.

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