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Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1 (1997)

Chapter: 2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke

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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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2
Diesel-Fuel Smoke

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Military Applications

Diesel-fuel smoke is one of the visual obscurants used by the armed forces to conceal personnel and equipment. Diesel-fuel smoke is formed by injecting diesel fuel into the exhaust manifold of a tactical vehicle where the fuel is vaporized and expelled with the vehicle's exhaust. Upon dilution and cooling to the ambient temperature, the fuel condenses into a dense white smoke. Because military personnel might be exposed to this aerosol in routine training situations and in actual combat, its effects on their performance and health are of interest.

Physical and Chemical Properties

Diesel fuel is a mixture of aliphatic, olefinic, and aromatic hydrocarbons obtained from the distillation of petroleum. The composition of the fuel purchased by the U.S. Army to generate smoke is controlled only by specifications on boiling point, cetane

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

number (a measurement of ignition quality), viscosity, and flash point. Additives might also be present in small quantities to improve combustibility (alkyl nitrates), reduce corrosion of storage vessels (surfactant), or reduce gum formation (antioxidants such as aromatic amides or phenols).

Diesel fuels are categorized as the middle distillates from crude oil and are more dense than gasoline. As defined in the U.S. Chemical Substances Inventory under the Toxic Substances Control Act, diesel fuels consist of hydrocarbons with carbon numbers predominantly in the range of C9 to C20 and boils in the range of 163 to 357°C (IARC 1989). That definition encompasses both diesel fuels No. 1 (DF1) and No. 2 (DF2). DF1 is essentially kerosene and consists of hydrocarbons with numbers predominantly in the range of C9 to C16 and boiling in the range of 150 to 300°C. DF1 contains little benzene (e.g., less than 0.02%) or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Millner et al. 1991). DF2 is essentially equivalent to fuel oil No. 2 used for automobiles and boils between 160 and 360°C (IARC 1989). DF2 is more viscous than DF1 and spans a carbon number range of C11 to C20 (IARC 1989). DF2 also contains a greater variety of compounds and includes olefins and mixed aromatic olefin-type compounds, such as styrenes. More information on the composition of diesel fuels can be found in IARC (1989) and Millner et al. (1992).

The characteristics of DF2 (Jenkins et al. 1983a) are the following:

Composition

 

 

Saturated hydrocarbons

70.0%

 

Substituted benzenes

16.0%

 

2-Ring aromatics

12.0%

 

3-Ring aromatics

2.0%

 

Polar aromatics

0.2%

Refractive index

1.477

Density at 25°C (grams per milliliter)

0.844

Viscosity at 25°C (centistokes)

3.35

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

Flash point (°C minimum) Distillation range

74.0

 

10% Point, °C

186.0

 

50% Point, °C

271.0

 

90% Point, °C

298.0

Diesel-fuel smoke—technically, a fog—is a condensation aerosol, consisting of a suspension of 0.5 to 1.0 micrometer (µm) fuel droplets in air. The droplets are individually translucent but opaque en mass. Particles in this range are respirable. The generation of the condensation aerosol is for the purpose of obscuring the soldiers from view; if conditions were such that a major portion of the fuel remained in the vapor form, the system would not achieve its purpose. However, a fraction of the fuel (components with low boiling points) might remain in the vapor form. Combusted fuel might also contribute to the total mass of the smoke, but Callahan et al. (1983) found that vehicle exhaust contributed only 1% to 2% of the total hydrocarbon concentration of the smoke. All measurements of and recommendations for diesel-fuel-smoke concentrations are reported as milligrams of total particulates per cubic meter.

TOXICOKINETICS

Although no toxicokinetic studies have been conducted with diesel-fuel smoke, some evidence of the deposition and clearance pattern of the smoke is available from studies of Dalbey et al. (1982, 1987) and Lock et al. (1984). In these studies (described in detail in the Toxicity Summary below), the lung was the primary target organ, with several indicators of an inflammatory response. The material appears to deposit and accumulate in the lung, remaining there long enough to induce an inflammatory response. Within a 2-week period, neutrophil levels are back to control levels,

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

suggesting that most of the particles are cleared. However, the macrophage levels are still elevated after that time period, indicating that some inhaled particles might still be in the lung. Dalbey et al. (1982, 1987) and Dalbey and Lock (1982) made use of dodecachlorobiphenyl as a dosimetric tracer for aerosols of diesel-fuel (Jenkins et al. 1983b). The fraction of inhaled diesel-fuel aerosol retained by the rats at the end of exposure was 4% to 8%. The largest internal amounts of the tracer were found in the lungs. Animals exposed to CT products at 8,000 milligrams per cubic meter multiplied by hour (mg•hr/m3) had between 2 and 4 mg of the aerosol particles in their lungs, and animals exposed to CT products at 12,000 mg•hr/m3 had between 3 and 6 mg of particles in their lungs. Tracer found in the upper respiratory tract accounted for less than 1.5% of the total internal dose, and that found in the digestive system accounted for approximately 30% of the total internal dose.

TOXICITY SUMMARY

Effects in Humans

Although extensive data are available on the health effects of combusted diesel-fuel exhaust, little information is available on the health effects of uncombusted diesel-fuel smoke in humans. Volunteers who were exposed to concentrations of 170 and 330 mg/m3 for 10 min reported no irritant effects (Dautrebande and Capps 1950). No other studies involving inhalation exposure of humans have been reported.

Repeated exposure to diesel fuel was reported to cause contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals (Il'in et al. 1969), but inadequate personal hygiene was indicated as a contributing factor. The literature regarding gastritis from ingested diesel fuel and pneumonia from aspiration of diesel fuel has been reviewed (Liss-Suter et al. 1978).

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

Effects in Animals

Dermal and Ocular Exposures
Lethality

Repeated application of commercial diesel fuel to the shaved skin of rabbits at 4 and 8 milliliters per kilogram (mL/kg) of body weight produced 0 and 67% mortality, respectively (Beck et al. 1982). Toxic signs included weight loss, anorexia, and severe dermal irritation. Necropsy revealed congested kidneys and livers.

Eye and Skin Irritation

Commercial diesel fuel did not induce eye irritation in rabbits during a 30-sec application or skin sensitization in guinea pigs (Beck et al. 1982). The fuel was, however, extremely irritating to the skin when applied for 24 hr.

Carcinogenic Effects

DF2 was positive when tested as a tumor promoter in the SENCAR mouse-skin tumorigenesis bioassay but was negative as a complete carcinogen in the same assay (Slaga et al. 1983).

Although no chronic in vivo bioassays have been conducted with diesel fuel per se, mouse skin-painting studies have found some middle distillate fractions of crude oil to be tumorigenic when applied to the skin (clipped free of fur) twice weekly for a lifetime (Blackburn et al. 1984, Lewis et al. 1984). However, Ingram and Grasso (1991) noted that the distillate fractions acted as irritants and, under the conditions of the chronic applications, caused overt skin damage, giving rise to epidermal hyperplasia, which might have enhanced the development of the tumors.

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×
Inhalation Exposures

Two major sets of animal studies on the toxicity of inhaled diesel-fuel smokes have been produced; one was conducted at Aberdeen Proving Ground (Callahan et al. 1983, 1986) and one at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Dalbey and Lock 1982; Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987; Lock et al. 1984). These studies cover both one-time and repeated exposures for up to 13 weeks. For one-time exposures, the product of exposure concentration and time is provided.

One-Time Exposures

Lethality. In a single-exposure study (Callahan et al. 1983), rats (Sprague-Dawley and Fischer 344), mice (B6C3F1), and guinea pigs (Hartley) were exposed to high concentrations of DF1 or DF2 smoke and exhaust for 15, 60, 120, or 300 min under static airflow conditions. The goal was to expose the animals to 10,000 to 12,000 mg/m3 of smoke, as the theoretical average smoke concentration predicted for exposure of military personnel standing within 10 m downwind from the tank, operating at maximal smoke-generating efficiency under strong inversion and low-wind-speed atmospheric conditions.

Generation and dissemination of the diesel-fuel smokes were accomplished by accelerating the 750-hp Chrysler engine of the tanks up to 1,700 revolutions per minute (rpm) for approximately 5 min. When the engine manifold temperature reached 1,180°F, the fuel was expelled into the manifold through an orifice and the generated smoke was drawn through a stainless steel tube into a wind tunnel. After a generation period of 5 min, the smoke was shunted into a 20,000-liter cylindrical exposure chamber. Caged animals were placed in the chamber before the introduction of the smoke. For exposures exceeding 60 min, the generation procedure was repeated every 60 min because the hydrocarbon concentrations

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

in the air of the exposure chamber decreased by 65% in 60 min.

The average concentration of the DF2 smoke for the 15- and 60-min exposures was 35,000 mg/m3 . The average concentration for the DF1 smoke was 15,000 mg/m3 for exposures from 15 to 300 min. Because dissemination of smoke generated from the M60A1 tank also involves normal exhaust emission from internal engine combustion, the concentration of the exhaust component was monitored. The hydrocarbon concentration from the exhaust of the engine was only 1% to 2% of the total smoke plus exhaust hydrocarbon concentration. The mass median aerodynamic diameter of the smoke particles was 0.23 µm or less (measured by cascade impaction at concentrations of 15,000 to 18,000 mg/m3).

Gases were also monitored in the exposure chambers and were reported as not exceeding the following values: NO2, 40 parts per million (ppm); SO2, 20 ppm; CO, 130 ppm; and CO2, 11,000 ppm. Oxygen never dropped below 18.9%.

Animals could not be observed during the exposures because of the density of the smoke. At the end of the 15-min exposures to DF2 smoke and exhaust, all animals but the mice appeared lethargic. The 1-hr exposures resulted in lacrimation, oral and nasal frothiness, nasal hemorrhage, and tremors in the guinea pigs. Sprague-Dawley rats manifested cyanosis, and mice showed piloerection. One of 10 F344 rats and 4 of 10 guinea pigs died from the 60-min exposure. Mortality of animals exposed to DF1 smoke increased with increasing length of exposure; after 300 min of exposure, all but 4 mice (out of 10 mice per strain) died.

Dalbey and Lock (1982) conducted experiments to establish the maximum tolerated concentration for a given exposure duration in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. The generation of the aerosol, which was designed to model the vehicle exhaust system used by the military to produce smoke from diesel fuel, consisted of a 1-in. O.D. stainless steel tube about 1 m long, with a Vycor heater fitted into one end. The heater was maintained at 600°C. The distal end of the generator was heated to 350°C by

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

heating tape. Nitrogen entered the tube near the Vycor heater and exited at the opposite end. Diesel fuel was metered onto the tip of the Vycor heater, where it was flash evaporated and carried by the hot nitrogen out of the generator into the cool supply air entering the exposure chamber. Aerosol concentration in the chamber was monitored continuously by infrared backscatter probes at the top and bottom of the chamber. Particle size was determined by cascade impaction at random intervals during the study. The mass median aerodynamic diameter of the particles ranged from 0.43 to 0.75 µm with a geometric standard deviation of 1.4 to 1.5. Air flow through the chamber was maintained at 425 L/m, and aerosol distribution within the chamber was uniform.

Exposures were for 2, 4, or 6 hr at concentrations ranging from 670 to 16,000 mg/m3. Exposure groups consisted of five males and five females. Mortality was observed for 2 weeks after the exposures. Mortality was the same in both sexes, and the data were combined. Mortality was found to be highly correlated with C·T, the CT product explaining 83% of the variation in mortality. A probit analysis was used to relate mortality to the log of the CT product so that the CT product that induces 1% mortality could be estimated. That estimate was 12,200 mg·hr/m3, and the 97.5% lower confidence bound of that value was calculated to be 8,200 mg·hr/m3.

Pulmonary Effects. The histopathology studies conducted by Callahan et al. (1983, 1986) indicated that the major lesions in the exposed animals were in the respiratory tract. Lesions were found in the nasal turbinates and lungs, and included congestion in the nasal turbinate, bronchopneumonia, bronchitis, peribronchiolitis, peribronchiolar lymphocytosis, pulmonary histiocytosis, and pulmonary congestion with edema and hemorrhage.

Dalbey and Lock (1982) found upon necropsy of the rats in their experiments that the only significant gross abnormality was edema in the lungs and occasionally in the trachea.

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×
Repeated 15- or 60-Minute Exposures

Callahan et al. (1986) exposed B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats to an average of 2,300 mg/m3 of M60A1 tank-generated exhaust and DF2 smoke for 15 or 60 min daily (5 days per week) for up to 13 weeks. Analysis of gas concentrations indicated an average of 4.4 ppm for NO2, 7.5 ppm for SO2, and 16 ppm for CO. CO2 did not exceed 1,000 ppm, and O2 did not go below 20%. The exposures were performed under static airflow conditions as described for the acute toxicity studies (Callahan et al. 1983). Toxicological, physiological, hematological, blood chemical, behavioral, reproductive, mutagenic, teratogenic, and pathological effects were evaluated.

The only clinical sign of toxicity observed in the exposed rodents was hypoactivity following the 32 or more consecutive daily exposures. After the daily exposure ended, hypoactivity diminished within 24 hr. Carboxyhemoglobin levels in the exposed rodents did not exceed 11%.

No gross pathological change was observed in exposed animals, but the incidence of mild-to-moderate pulmonary congestion increased as compared with controls. Exposed rats also had increased incidences of inflammatory and vascular lesions in nasal turbinates and tracheas. The respiratory-tract changes were of low severity and were not related to the duration of exposure. Therefore, the investigators did not consider the findings likely to be exposure-related.

Repeated 4-Hour Exposures

Lock et al. (1984) conducted a 13-week study to determine if there were cumulative toxic effects from repeated exposures to low concentrations of diesel-fuel smoke. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed for 4 hr, twice a week for 13 weeks (26 exposures). The exposure pattern was meant to mimic what humans might experience in the field. Animals were observed either

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

5 days after the last exposure or after a recovery period of 2 months. Actual exposure concentrations of the smoke were 170, 870, and 1,600 mg/m3, as measured by infrared backscatter probes and averaged over the entire 4-hr exposure period.

Observations made during the study included body weight, food consumption, breathing frequency, and startle reflex. After the last exposure, measurements and observations were made of the number of alveolar cells removed by lavage, clinical chemistry, pulmonary function, organ weights, and histopathology. An analysis of variance was conducted, and statistical significance was based on a significance level of 0.05.

Body Weight. No deaths occurred during this study, nor were there any overt clinical signs of toxicity. Sham-exposed animals had an initial weight loss during the exposure and then returned to normal weight. The exposed animals also had an initial weight loss upon exposure, but continued to lose weight until the beginning of the fourth week of exposure. After the fourth week, the animals started to gain weight. The males exposed to the lowest concentration gained weight more rapidly than those in the two higher concentrations; females gained little weight throughout the exposure period.

During the 2-month recovery period, females in all exposed groups grew more rapidly than males, so the end weights of the females were not different from those of the sham-exposed animals. On the other hand, males gained weight slowly, so only the lowest exposure group had body weights equal to those of the sham-exposed animals. Food consumption in rats of both sexes exposed to the lowest exposure concentration did not differ significantly from that in the sham-exposed group. In the two highest exposure groups, food consumption was less than that in the sham controls. Thus, in terms of weight loss, the aerosol concentrations used were above the no-observed-effect level.

Neurological Effects. A startle-reflex assay was used to test the time to reaction and the force of response to a sharp auditory

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

stimulus. Rats were placed in a wire box within a larger sound-insulated box. A constant white noise at 85 decibels (dB) within the larger box helped eliminate outside noises. After an acclimation period of 10 min, rats received five 10-msec pulses of noise at 13,000 Hz and 110 dB separated by 25 sec. Their responses, or startle reflexes, were monitored by a Gould load cell under the wire box.

The number of responses made by exposed versus sham-exposed animals was not significantly different in any case. Reaction time (time from start of acoustic stimulus to start of response) was slightly longer in males examined 5 days after 13 weeks of exposure at the highest test concentration (1,600 mg/m3). Female rats exposed at the middle test concentration (870 mg/m3) also had increased reaction times. In both instances, the authors suggested that those differences, although statistically significant, were of doubtful biological importance because the changes were so small (less than 2 msec). The maximum amplitude of the response was statistically significantly higher in the sham-exposed controls than in other groups of males; recovery was complete 1 month after exposure. A similar effect was not observed in females. Statistically significant increases in peak time (time from acoustic stimulus to peak response) occurred in males, particularly in the group exposed at the highest concentration, for which every value measured at every time point through 2 months of recovery was higher than that in the sham-exposed controls. Males exposed at the two lowest concentrations also showed some statistically significant increases in peak time through 1 month of recovery. The differences varied up to 5 msec in females and 3 msec in males; the authors interpreted those values as a significant decrement in performance. In females, the increases in peak time were observed only in the two highest exposure groups, and the differences were no longer seen after 2 months of recovery.

The increases in time to peak response in these assays, in the absence of changes in reaction time and in the force exerted, represent a lengthening of the duration of the response. These changes are difficult to interpret. Most of the changes were approximately

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

2 or 3 msec, which the authors did not interpret as biologically significant. In the male rats, the peak times observed in the sham-exposed control rats differed from those in the rats in all other groups by 2.5 msec, even before any exposure occurred. This observation suggests that differences of 2 to 3 msec might not be biologically significant. Therefore, the subcommittee considered this response to be reversible and of doubtful biological concern.

Pulmonary Effects. Breathing frequencies measured 5 days after the last exposure were not affected. Some changes occurred in nitrogen washout curves, but the changes were not dose related. The nitrogen clearance rate was significantly faster in males and females exposed at the two lowest concentrations of the smoke than in the controls, but the group exposed at the highest concentration was marginally slower in its clearance rate than the controls. CO diffusing capacity did not change. Tests of obstructive airway disease, done using maximal forced exhalation maneuvers, showed that residual volume was significantly decreased at the highest exposure concentration. Functional residual capacity (FRC), vital capacity (VC), and peak flow were not affected. Total lung capacity (TLC) decreased slightly at the highest exposure concentration.

Total lavaged cells, as well as alveolar macrophages, showed some variable increases in the exposed animals, but by 2 months of recovery, differences between exposed and control groups in either males or females were not significant. The small increases seen in alveolar macrophages were not exposure-concentration dependent.

Organ Weights. Liver weights increased slightly in some of the exposed animals, but the increases were not concentration dependent. The same was true for adrenal weights. An increase was observed in wet weight and in wet-to-dry-weight ratio of the lung at the highest exposure concentration.

Clinical Chemistry. No biologically significant changes in the

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

clinical chemistry values could be related to diesel-fuel exposure.

Histopathology. No microscopic lesions were recorded for the group that had been exposed at the highest concentration. The conclusions of the histopathological analysis were that no new lesions were found in any of the organs, including the respiratory tract, that could be attributed to inhalation of the diesel-fuel smoke.

Summary. Very little toxicity was observed in rats exposed for 13 weeks to diesel-fuel smoke at up to 1,600 mg/m3.

Repeated Exposures: Relative Significance of Frequency, Duration, and Concentration

Using the same smoke-generation procedures as described by Dalbey and Lock (1982), Dalbey et al. (1982, 1987) tested the relative significance of frequency of exposure, duration of exposure, and aerosol concentration on resultant toxicity. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed once a week for 9 weeks or three times a week for 3 weeks (a total of nine exposures in each case) to diesel-fuel smoke at concentrations ranging from 1,300 to 6,000 mg/m3 for 2 or 6 hr. Examinations of animals were conducted within 2 days of the last exposure or after a 2-week recovery period using neurotoxicological tests, pulmonary-function tests, and evaluations of hematology, clinical chemistry, organ weights, and histopathology. A CT product of 8,000 mg·hr/m3 was used as a lower exposure concentration, and 12,000 mg·hr/m3 as an upper concentration, at which some deaths might be expected.

Neurological Effects. Dalbey et al. (1982, 1987) found no exposure-related changes in the neurotoxicity tests evaluated.

Pulmonary Effects. Dalbey et al. (1982, 1987) did not find

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

histological abnormalities in any organ except the lung 2 days after the final exposure (Table 2-1). Focal accumulations of free pulmonary cells were observed in the lung parenchyma and were associated with thickening and hypercellularity of alveolar walls. The number of lavaged alveolar cells correlated well with histological observations, remaining elevated after the 2-week exposure period. Lung volumes were altered by exposure with an increased FRC, decreased TLC, and decreased VC. CO diffusing capacity was decreased in some of the exposed groups. Pulmonary wet weights (but not dry weights) increased with increasing exposures. The frequency of exposure appeared to be the dominant variable over

TABLE 2-1 Severity of Focal Pneumonitis and Associated Histological Changes Observed in the Lungs of Ratsa

Exposures

per Week

Hours per

Exposure

Concentration

(mg/m3)

2 Days

Post-Exposure

2 Weeks

Post-Exposure

1

2

0

1

6

0

3

2

0

3

6

0

1

2

4,000

±

±

1

2

6,000

+

±

1

6

2,000

++

+

1

6

4,000/3,000

±

±/+

3

2

4,000

+/++

++

3

2

6,000

+++

+/++

3

6

2,000

++/+++

++

3

6

4,000/3,000

++/+++

±/+

a Severity was graded on the following relative scale: –, no observed focal pneumonitis; ±, equivocal change; +, slight; ++, moderate; +++, most severe observed. The total number of exposures in all cases was nine.

Sources: Dalbey and Lock 1982; Dalbey et al. 1987.

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

the range of variables studied; exposures three times per week were more injurious than once per week. Variation in duration of exposure appeared to have little effect, and dependence of the response on the exposure concentration was often lacking.

After a 2-week recovery period, the pulmonary effects observed 2 days after the final exposure were still present, but some were diminished. Alveolar macrophages continued to be approximately 2-fold higher in lavage fluid from exposed rats than from controls, but the neutrophils that were present in high numbers 2 days after exposure were now at control levels. Lung wet weights were still increased 2 weeks after the final exposure, but were slightly less than weights measured 2 days after the final exposure. The highest severity scores of the focal pneumonitis in the lung decreased from severe to moderate between 2 days and 2 weeks after exposure stopped.

Reproductive and Developmental Effects. Starke et al. (1987) conducted three types of studies to examine the potential reproductive and developmental effects of exposure of Sprague-Dawley rats to DF2 smoke: a prenatal developmental toxicity study, a dominant lethal study, and a single-generation study. Callahan et al. (1986) conducted a histological evaluation of reproductive organs following a 13-week exposure to diesel-fuel smoke. These studies are described below.

In the prenatal toxicity study, pregnant females were exposed on gestation days (GD) 6 to 15 to M60A1 tank-generated exhaust at 6 ± 6 mg/m3 for 60 min (360 ± 360 mg·min/m3), to DF2 smoke plus exhaust at 2,340 ± 450 mg/m3 for 60 min (140,000 ± 27,000 mg·min/m3), and to noise from the tank's engine for 20 to 30 sec (the time that the engine was run for the exhaust and smoke groups) (Starke et al. 1987). On GD 20, the females were killed and the fetuses examined for external, visceral, and skeletal malformations. Both the exhaust-exposed and the exhaust-DF2-exposed groups of females gained less weight between GD 6 and 20 than did the control females. The incidence of prenatal death was somewhat higher in the exhaust-DF2-exposed group (10%) than in

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

the controls (2%), but it is within the range of the historical incidence of prenatal death in controls for this strain of rats. A cluster of five fetuses were malformed in one litter in the exhaust-DF2-exposed group, and one fetus was malformed in one litter in the exhaust-exposed group. The cluster is difficult to interpret, but because it was from a single litter, with no malformations from any other litter in that group, the subcommittee interprets this result as being unrelated to smoke exposure. The single malformation in the exhaust-exposed group is also unlikely to be related to the exhaust exposure.

The incidence of retarded or low skeletal ossification, particularly of the sternum, was higher in both the exhaust- and the exhaust-DF2-exposed groups (78% and 81%, respectively) than in the engine-noise-only control group (65%), but the difference was not statistically significant. The historical incidence of low ossification in control groups not exposed to engine noise is 7%. Thus, it appears that tank engine noise alone stresses the dams.

In the dominant lethal study, males that had sired viable offspring, referred to as proven males, were exposed for 10 weeks, 5 days per week, to noise control for 60 min, to tank exhaust for 15 or 60 min, and to exhaust plus DF2 smoke for 15 or 60 min (Starke et al. 1987). The exposure concentrations of tank exhaust and DF2 smoke were the same as those for the prenatal study. During the week following the exposure period, each male was housed with two unexposed females for 5 days, left alone for 2 days, then housed with two more females for 5 days. Females were killed 11 days after separation from the male. Starke et al. (1987) found no exposure-related differences in successful matings or in the incidence of single or multiple resorptions. Thus, no indications of dominant lethal mutations were observed.

In the single-generation study, proven males were exposed to the same conditions as those in the dominant lethal study (Starke et al. 1987). Females were exposed similarly but only during the last 3 weeks of the males' 10-week exposures. The week following the exposure, animals were mated (one male to two females), and daily exposure of the females continued through mating, gestation,

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

and lactation; pups were not exposed directly. The pups were examined, sexed, and weighed 24 hr after birth. On postnatal day (PND) 4, they were reweighed and litters reduced to 10 pups each. On PND 21, pups were weighed and killed. Two males and two females were examined from each litter for external and visceral abnormalities. If no abnormalities were found, none of the remaining pups from that litter were examined. If abnormalities were found, the remaining pups from the litter were examined.

The pups from the 60-min exhaust-DF2-exposed group were reported to gain slightly less weight between days 1 and 21 than pups from the control group; however, the difference might be attributable to the slightly larger litter size of this group between days 1 and 4 (before standardizing the litter size) compared with the litter size of the control group. It is well known that average pup body weight tends to be inversely related to litter size, and that relationship was borne out in the comparison of the other exposure groups with the controls. For example, the 60-min exhaust-exposed group also had slightly larger litters than controls, and pup body-weight gain was slightly, but not significantly, smaller in this group than in controls. The 15-min exhaust- and exhaust-DF2-exposed groups had slightly smaller litters than controls, and pup weight gains were slightly, but not significantly, larger for these two groups than for controls. The incidence of malformations appeared to be similar among all the groups in the study; however, because not all pups were examined, these data are of limited value. In conclusion, the data from the single-generation study do not indicate any effect of either exhaust or exhaust-DF2-smoke exposure on the reproductive and developmental end points examined.

As described earlier, Callahan et al. (1986) exposed B6C3F1 mice and F344 rats to an average of 2,300 mg/m3 of M60A1 tank-generated exhaust-DF2 smoke for 15- or 60-min daily (5 days per week) for up to 13 weeks. No significant exposure-related changes in testes weight occurred in either species (other organ weights were not measured). Microscopic evaluation of the testes, mammary glands, ovary, and uterus also indicated no significant

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

exposure-related lesions. However, adequate histological examination of the testis requires Bouin's fixation. The type of fixative used was not stated in the report, but formalin was likely used.

Thus, these studies provide no indication of a reproductive or developmental effect. The limitations of these studies include the following: (1) only one species was evaluated, (2) a second generation was not studied to determine the long-term effects of in utero and subsequent exposure, (3) a complete evaluation of adult male and female reproductive function was not conducted, and (4) only one test exposure concentration was used.

Screening Tests for Mutagenicity

A sample of diesel fuel containing 23.9% aromatics was negative for mutagenic potential in the Salmonella reversion and mouse lymphoma assays, both with and without metabolic activation (Conaway et al. 1982). Intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of diesel fuel in rats was clastogenic in bone-marrow cells, inducing a significant 1% increase in chromosomal abnormalities at a dose of 2.0 mL/kg (but not at 0.6 mL/kg) (Conaway et al. 1982); however, the i.p. injection route might not be predictive of effects from inhalation exposures. DF2 concentrates were not found to be mutagenic in Drosophila melanogaster (Callahan et al. 1986).

Summary of Toxicity Data

The noncancer and carcinogenic effects of exposure to diesel-fuel smokes are summarized below. Table 2-2 summarizes the nonlethal dose-response data for inhalation exposures to diesel-fuel smokes.

Noncancer Toxicity

The high-concentration, one-time exposure studies of Dalbey

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

TABLE 2-2 Summary of Exposure-Response Data for Effects of Diesel-Fuel Smokes

Species,

Smoke Type

Exposure Duration

and Frequency

Concentration

(mg/m3)

Effects

Reference

Effects in Humans

Human (workers)

10 min

170-330

No irritation

Il'in et al. 1969

Effects in Animals

One-Time Inhalation Exposures

Lethality

 

 

 

 

Rat, mouse, guinea pig; DF1

15 min

15,000

No deaths

Callahan et al. 1983

1 hr

Low mortality

2 hr

Moderate mortality

5 hr

All animals except 4 mice died

Rat, mouse, guinea pig; DF2

15 min

35,000

Lethargy in rats and guinea pigs;

no deaths

Callahan et al. 1983

Rat, mouse, guinea pig; DF2

1 hr

35,000

Sprague-Dawley rats: cyanotic

F344 rats: 1/10 died

Guinea pigs: 4/10 died

Callahan et al. 1983

Rat

2 hr

8,000

1/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

Rat

2 hr

12,000

2/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

2 hr

14,000

5/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

2 hr

16,000

5/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

4 hr

4,000

No deaths

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

4 hr

6,000

No deaths

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

4 hr

8,000

4/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

4 hr

12,000

6/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

4 hr

16,000

6/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

6 hr

2,700

No deaths

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

6 hr

4,000

No deaths

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

6 hr

5,300

3/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

Species, Smoke Type

Exposure Duration and Frequency

Concentration (mg/m3)

Effects

Reference

Rat

6 hr

8,000

6/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

6 hr

12,000

10/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Rat

6 hr

16,000

10/10 died

Dalbey and Lock 1982

Pulmonary Effects

Rat, mouse,

guinea pig; DF1

15 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, and 5 hr

15,000

Increasing severity of respiratory-tract lesions with increasing time of exposure; after 5 hr exposure, all animals except 4 mice died

Callahan et al. 1983

Repeated Inhalation Exposures

Rat, mouse

15 min/d, 5 d/wk, 13 wk; 60 min/d, 5 d/wk, 13 wk

NOAEL 2,300

No observed adverse effects

Callahan et al. 1986

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

Rat

4 hr/d, 2 d/wk, 13 wk

NOAEL 170

Decreased weight gain during exposures; females regained weight during recovery; males regained weight up to control values only at the lowest exposure concentration Startle reflex: Increased time to peak response in males at all exposures and in females at two higher exposures; no consistent treatment-related changes in reaction time or force exerted No histopathological or clinical chemistry changes; RV and TLC decreased at highest exposure, but no changes in FRC, VC, or peak flow

Lock et al. 1984

Rat

4 hr/d, 2 d/wk, 13 wk

870

Rat

4 hr/d, 2 d/wk, 13 wk

1,600

Rat

2 hr/d, 1 d/wk, 9 wk

4,000

Equivocal FP at 2 d and 2 wk after exposure

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Rat

2 hr/d, 1 d/wk 9 wk

6,000

Slight FP at 2 d; equivocal at 2 wk

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Rat

6 hr/d, 1 d/wk, 9 wk

2,000

Moderate FP at 2 d; slight at 2 wk

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Rat

6 hr/d, 1d/wk, 9 wk

4,000

Equivocal FP at 2 d; equivocal to slight at 2 wk

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

Species,

Smoke Type

Exposure Duration and Frequency

Concentration (mg/m3)

Effects

Reference

Rat

2 hr/d, 3 d/wk, 3 wk

4,000

Moderate FP at 2 d; slight at 2 wk

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Rat

2 hr/d, 3 d/wk, 3 wk

6,000

Severe FP at 2 d; moderate at 2 wk

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Rat

6 hr/d, 3 d/wk, 3 wk

2,000

Severe FP at 2 d; moderate at 2 wk

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Rat

6 hr/d, 3 d/wk, 3 wk

4,000

Severe FP at 2 d; slight at 2 wk

Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987

Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity

Rat, DF2

60 min/d, GD 6 to 15

NOAEL 2,340 ± 450

Prenatal toxicity: Slight increase in delayed skeletal development; same for exhaust-only and exhaust-smokes group

Starke et al. 1987

Rat (male), DF2

60 min/d, 5 d/wk, 10 wk

NOAEL 2,340 ± 450

Dominant lethal study: No observed adverse effects

Starke et al. 1987

Rat, DF2

60 min/d, 5 d/wk, ♂ 10 wk; ♀ 3 wk

NOAEL 2,340 ± 450

Single-generation study: No observed adverse effects

Starke et al. 1987

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

Rat, DF2

60 min/d, 5 d/wk, 13 wk

NOAEL 2,300

Subchronic study: No observed adverse effects on testes weight or histopathology of reproductive organs

Callahan et al. 1986

Abbreviations: hr, hour(s); d, day(s); wk, week(s); min, minute(s); FP, focal pneumonitis; GD, gestation day; ♂ male;, male; ♀ female;, female; DF2, diesel-fuel grade 2; DF1, diesel-fuel grade 1; NOAEL, no-observed-adverse-effects level.

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

and Lock (1982) and Callahan et al. (1983) indicated that the major target-organ system for diesel smoke via inhalation exposure is the respiratory tract. They found mortality from the smoke to be dependent on the product of exposure concentration and time (CT). Dalbey et al. (1982, 1987) found that the frequency of exposure also influences the toxicity of diesel-fuel smoke. Once-a-week exposures for 6 hr were much less toxic than 2-hr exposures, three times a week, to the same concentration of smoke. The study of Lock et al. (1984) was designed to determine if repeated exposures to low concentrations of diesel-fuel smoke would cause cumulative toxicity. Rats were exposed for 4 hr, twice a week, for 13 weeks, and observations were made 5 days and 2 months after the end of the exposures. The results indicated little toxicity at exposure concentrations of up to 1,600 mg/m3, except for weight losses at all exposure concentrations, minimal pulmonary-function changes at the highest exposure concentration, and small reversible changes in time to peak startle response.

Carcinogenicity

Several tests for potential mutagenic activity of diesel fuels were negative (Conaway et al. 1982; Callahan et al. 1986). DF2 tested positive as a tumor promoter, but not as a complete carcinogen, in a mouse skin bioassay (Slaga et al. 1983). No long-term in vivo cancer bioassays have been done for diesel fuel per se. The appearance of tumors in mice exposed to some crude-oil-distillate fractions might be the result of the skin damage produced by repeated applications of the liquids to their shaved skin. Finally, IARC (1989) has concluded that there is inadequate evidence for the carcinogenicity of diesel fuels in humans, but limited evidence for the carcinogenicity of diesel fuel No. 4 (DF4) (also called marine diesel fuel), but not DF1 or DF2, in experimental animals.

Diesel exhaust (combusted diesel fuel) might account for 1% to 2% of diesel-fuel smoke if the smoke is generated by a diesel-powered vehicle. IARC has designated diesel exhaust as a 2B carcinogen

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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(i.e., a possible human carcinogen with inadequate evidence in humans and adequate evidence in animals). However, the charge of the subcommittee was to review the toxicity of diesel-fuel smokes per se. The risk assessments for the diesel-fuel smoke were based on the concentration of particles of condensed fuel in the smoke, which, under obscuring conditions, are present at extremely high concentrations compared with soot from the diesel engines that are running the tanks.

EXISTING RECOMMENDED EXPOSURE LIMITS

Exposure limits have not been recommended for diesel-fuel smoke or its components. The ACGIH TLV-TWA value for diesel fuel of 350 mg/m3 refers to total hydrocarbons as vapor, not as an aerosol of the total fuel (ACGIH 1995).

SUBCOMMITTEE EVALUATION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

On the basis of the toxicity information described above, the subcommittee has developed exposure guidance levels for military personnel exposed during an emergency release or during regular training exercises and for communities nearby training facilities to protect them from emergency or repeated releases of diesel-fuel smoke.

Inhalation studies indicate that the respiratory tract is the primary target organ system following exposure to diesel-fuel smoke and that mortality from a one-time exposure is dependent on C•T. Repeated-exposure studies indicate that pulmonary toxicity also depends on the frequency of exposure. One 6-hr exposure per week at the same concentration (4,000 mg/m3) of smoke was less toxic to the lung than three 2-hr exposures a week (Dalbey et al. 1982, 1987). That finding indicates that for a given CT product, toxicity increases with the frequency of exposure. Therefore,

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

the subcommittee recommends that training exercises without masking be conducted no more frequently than twice a week.

Military Exposures

Emergency Exposure Guidance Level (EEGL)1

For the EEGLs, the subcommittee considered the acute toxicity studies of Dalbey and Lock (1982) and Callahan et al. (1983). Dalbey and Lock (1982) used a probit analysis to estimate the CT product that induced 1% mortality. The 97.5% lower confidence bound of this value was 8,200 mg•hr/m3. Considering the severity of the end point (death), the subcommittee divided that value by an uncertainty factor of 10 to predict a nonpermanent health impairment and by another uncertainty factor of 10 to account for interspecies sensitivity to arrive at an EEGL of 80 mg•hr/m3. That CT product results in a 15-min EEGL of 320 mg/m3, rounded to 300 mg/m3, a 1-hr EEGL of 80 mg/m3, and a 6-hr EEGL of 15 mg/m3. Support for the assumption that permanent health effects would not occur from exposure at these concentrations comes from the repeated exposure studies of Dalbey et al. (1987), in which rats exposed once a week for 9 weeks to a weekly CT product of 8,000 mg•hr/m3 exhibited only equivocal pulmonary inflammation, which remained equivocal after a 2-week recovery period. In addition, human volunteers exposed to diesel-fuel smoke at 330 mg/m3 for 10 min reported no irritant effects.

Permissible Exposure Guidance Level (PEGL)2

The most relevant toxicity study for recommending PEGLs

1  

Guidance for a rare, emergency situation resulting in an exposure of military personnel.

2  

Guidance for repeated exposure of military personnel during training exercises.

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

involved repeated exposures of rats twice a week for 13 weeks (Lock et al. 1984). Exposure of rats for 4 hr, twice a week, to diesel-fuel smoke at concentrations as high as 1,600 mg/m3 caused no lesions in the respiratory tract. The exposures did cause weight losses and reduced weight gains that resulted in weight deficits of greater than 10% for males, as compared with sham-exposed rats at the two highest exposure concentrations and with females even at the lowest exposure concentration. At the lowest exposure concentration, the weight deficit did not increase beyond 10% until after 10 weeks of exposure. Two months after the exposure, male body weights only returned to those of sham-exposed controls. Female weights in all exposure groups returned to control concentrations. If one considers the lower exposure concentration of 170 mg/m3 for 4 hr, twice a week for at least 10 weeks, to be a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL, i.e., 1,360 mg•hr/m3 per week), then the PEGL would be calculated as one-tenth that value (140 mg•hr/m3 per week) to account for species differences.

The subcommittee also considered the studies of Dalbey et al. (1982, 1987). In those studies, rats exposed to 4,000 mg/m3 of smoke for 2 hr, once a week for 9 weeks had equivocal signs of focal pneumonitis, and the equivocal lesion had not recovered 2 weeks later (Table 2-1). That regimen amounted to a weekly exposure of 8,000 mg•hr/m3 and is considered a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL). Dividing by 100 to convert from the LOAEL to an expected NOAEL and to account for species differences, the PEGL is 80 mg•hr/m3 within 1 week, with no more than two exposures per week.

The subcommittee chose 80 mg•hr/m3 per week as the PEGL because it was the lower value of the two alternatives. The subcommittee assumed that an exposure event occurred over an extended period, such as 8 hr. Thus, the PEGL for a single exposure in 1 week would equal 10 mg/m3 for an 8-hr exposure, and the PEGL for two exposures in 1 week would equal 5 mg/m3 for each of two 8-hr exposures. The subcommittee recommends those PEGLs as ceiling values; in other words, those PEGLs apply even if the exposure events are less than 8 hr in a given day. The CT

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

product for the PEGLs is the same as the CT product for the EEGLs; however, the maximum exposure concentration and rate of exposure are less for the PEGLs than for the EEGLs. The subcommittee also recommends that protective equipment be worn if exposures to diesel-fuel smoke during training appears to produce chronic dermatitis in any individuals.

Public Exposures

Short-Term Public Emergency Guidance Level (SPEGL)3

The SPEGL should accommodate the wide range of sensitivity possible in the general population compared with military personnel; therefore, a value equal to one tenth the EEGL is recommended (NRC 1986). It should be emphasized that the EEGL and SPEGL values are for emergency situations only. The SPEGL is 8 mg•hr/m3 for a maximum of 6 hr for an emergency exposure.

Permissible Public Exposure Guidance Level (PPEGL)4

This value is equal to the PEGL divided by 10 to protect sensitive members of the public (NRC 1986). Thus, the subcommittee chose 8 mg•hr/m3 per week as the PPEGL, with no more than two exposures per week. As for the PEGL, the subcommittee assumed that an exposure event occurs over an extended period, such as 8 hr. Thus, the PPEGL for a single exposure in 1 week would equal 1 mg/m3 for an 8-hr exposure, and the PPEGL for two exposures in 1 week would equal 0.5 mg/m3 for each of two 8-hr

3  

Guidance for a rare, emergency situation potentially resulting in an exposure of the public to a military-training smoke.

4  

Guidance for repeated exposures of public communities near military-training facilities.

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×

exposures. The PPEGLs represent ceiling values; in other words, those PPEGLs apply even if the exposure events are less than 8 hr in a given day. The CT product for the PPEGLs is the same as the CT product for the SPEGLs; however, the maximum exposure concentration and rate of exposure are less for the PPEGLs than for the SPEGLs.

Summary of Subcommittee Recommendations

The exposure guidance levels for diesel-fuel smoke for military personnel are summarized in Table 2-3. The exposure guidance levels for diesel-fuel smoke to protect the public in the vicinity of training facilities are summarized in Table 2-4.

TABLE 2-3 EEGLs and PEGLs for Diesel-Fuel Smoke for Military Personnel

Exposure Guideline

Exposure Duration

Guidance Level (mg/m3)

EEGL

15 min

300

 

1 hr

80

 

6 hr

15

PEGL

8 hr/d, 1 d/wk

10

 

8 hr/d, 2 d/wk

5

TABLE 2-4 SPEGLs and PPEGLs for Diesel-Fuel Smoke at the Boundaries of Military Training Facilities

Exposure Guideline

Exposure Duration

Guidance Level (mg/m3)

SPEGL

15 min

30

 

1 hr

8.0

 

6 hr

1.5

PPEGL

8 hr/d, 1 d/wk

1

 

8 hr/d, 2 d/wk

0.5

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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RESEARCH NEEDS

Recommendations for diesel-fuel smoke were based on studies conducted in laboratory animals over relatively short durations, all less than 3 months. It is not known if the modest adverse effects noted at the end of these exposures would have increased in severity had the exposures continued for longer durations. Some military personnel are exposed to smoke during training exercises over several years. Toxicity studies conducted over exposure durations longer than 10 weeks, perhaps up to 1 or 2 years, would provide the information necessary to evaluate human health risks due to years of exposure to diesel-fuel smoke during training exercises.

Army personnel who work with this smoke, trainers in particular, represent a rich source of potential information on the health effects of the smoke. The subcommittee recommends that the U.S. Army conduct a prospective study with appropriate controls in which pulmonary-function tests (spirometry and diffusing capacity at a minimum) and routine chemistry tests (panel 20 plus Mg and thyroid tests as a minimum) are conducted on personnel who are exposed repeatedly to the smoke.

Additional studies are recommended to explore fully the potential for reproductive and developmental effects of exposure to diesel-fuel smokes. To evaluate male and female reproductive toxicity, a two-generation study, including a detailed evaluation of reproductive effects, is recommended. Developmental effects have been evaluated only in Sprague-Dawley rats; conclusions would be more robust if similar findings were observed in a second species of mammal.

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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Slaga, T.J., L.L. Triplett, and R.J.M. Fry. 1983. Chemical Characterization and Toxicological Evaluation of Airborne Mixtures. Tumorigenicity Studies of Diesel Fuel-2, Red Smoke Dye, and Violet Smoke Dyes in the SENCAR Mouse Skin Tumorigenesis Bioassay System. ORNL/TM-9752. AD-A159 728. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

Starke, W.C., R.J. Pellerin, D.C. Burnett, J.H. Manthei, and D.H. Heitkamp. 1987. Teratogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Effects of Grade 2 Diesel Fuel on Reproduction in a Single Generation of Rats. Tech. Rep. CRDEC-TR-87083. Chemical Research, Development and Engineering Center, U.S. Army Armament, Munitions and Chemical Command, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Edgewood, Md.

Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
×
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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Suggested Citation:"2 - Diesel-Fuel Smoke." National Research Council. 1997. Toxicity of Military Smokes and Obscurants: Volume 1. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/5582.
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