The Funding of Social Knowledge Production and Application: A Survey of Federal Agencies (1978)

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4 Department of Agriculture The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the second-largest cabinet-level funder of social knowledge production and application in the federal government, obligating more than $280 million in fiscal 1977. While the bulk of the department's research and development funds are devoted to agricultural research, it carries out a significant amount of social research and related activities. In addition to its importance as the second-largest funder of social knowledge production and application, the department is important because of its unique pattern of R&D support, a pattern in which social research and related activities have been deeply intertwined. The de- partment's support of social knowledge production and application has the following unique characteristics: o A large proportion of the department's social research is con- ducted intramurally. More than 70 percent of the department's total R&D in fiscal 1977 was performed intramurally, the largest percentage of any federal department. The department's social research follows a similar pattern. o A high proportion of the department's social knowledge produc- tion and application obligations is devoted to application activities. More than 60 percent of the department's knowledge production and application obligations is for application activities, the highest propor- tion of any department surveyed by the Study Project. This reflects the department's long concern with the application and use of knowledge. 41

42 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES The department supports the only federal agency devoted exclusively to dissemination activities (the Extension Service). o A significant amount of the department's social research is per- formed at local research units, called state agricultural experiment stations. The department supported more than $27 million in social research at the 55 state agricultural experiment stations. No other fed- eral department has fostered such a decentralized system. USDA has served as a model for newer R&D ventures. When educa- tional leaders established regional educational laboratories, the state agricultural experiment stations served as a precedent and model. When urban policy makers talked of starting university-based urban research centers, they looked to the relationship between land grant colleges and the agricultural community. USDA has a long history of funding social research, collecting social statistics, and applying knowledge. As early as the 1870s, the depart- ment was collecting economic statistics and reporting on the health of rural families. During the 1920s, the department was already making systematic and sustained use of the social sciences. The management of the agricultural sector of the national economy made it necessary for the department to institutionalize the use of economic analysis. In 1921. the department brought together several of its research units to form the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. The bureau was the leading social research agency in the federal govern- ment throughout the 1920s and 1930s. The bureau played a large role in encouraging the study of agricultural economics and rural sociology in universities. During this period, the bureau created the first unit in the federal government that used attitude and opinion surveys widely. SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION ACTIVITIES Table 4-1 presents the distribution of the department's social knowl- edge production and application activities. The largest category, dissemination, includes the activities of the Extension Service and other USDA agencies. The amount, nearly $170 million in fiscal 1977, is nearly 60 percent of the department's total; no other federal department spends as large a portion of its knowledge production and application total on application. The department's $64.5 million spent for research activities makes USDA the third-largest research-supporting department or independent agency, ranking be-

Department of Agriculture 43 TABLE 4-1 Department of Agriculture Social Knowledge Production and Application Activities (Smillions) Activity Fiscal 1975 Fiscal 1976 Fiscal 1977 Knowledge production Research Policy formulation demonstrations Program evaluation General purpose statistics Total Knowledge application Policy implementation demonstrations Development of materials Dissemination Total TOTAL 54.9 (20.8)° 0.1 4.6 (1.7) 37.5 (14.2) 97.0 (36.8) 0.5 (0.2) 166.2 (63.0) 166.7 (63.2) 263.6 (99.9) 62.1 (22.0) 0.2 (0.1) 2.6 (0.9) 40.6 (14.4) 105.6 (37.4) 0.6 (0.2) 176.2 (62.4) 176.8 (62.6) 282.4 (100.0) 64.6 (22.6) 0.4 (0.1) 5.7 (2.0) 43.9 (15.4) 114.5 (40.1) 0.5 (0.2) 170.6 (59.7) 171.2 (59.9) 285.7 (100.0) Numbers may not total due to rounding. "Numbers in parentheses are column percentages. hind the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and the Na- tional Science Foundation. The research activities are largely sup- ported by two USDA agencies, the Economic Research Service and the Cooperative Extension Service. The Department also ranks third in the government in money obligated for general purpose statistics. The statistical activities take place primarily in two agencies, the Statistical Reporting Service and the Agricultural Marketing Service. Three categories — research, general purpose statistics, and dissemination—dominate the department's social knowledge produc- tion and application activities. These three categories account for over 95 percent of the department's social knowledge production and appli- cation obligations.

44 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES Table 4-2 presents a list of the USDA agencies that fund social knowl- edge production and application activities. The table lists the agencies that have been consolidated into new units. A striking feature of Table 4-2 is the number of agencies whose primary goal is the provision of knowledge for third parties; they ac- count for over 70 percent of the agency's total knowledge production and application obligations. This emphasis on third parties points out a dominant feature of the department—its role in providing knowledge to a nonfederal audience. The importance of a strong nonfederal consti- tuency has shaped the activities of the department and helps explain the efforts by the department to make local parties a major part of the USDA'S R&D network. ORGANIZATION OF THE DEPARTMENT In October 1977, the Secretary of Agriculture announced a major reor- ganization of the department. The goal of the reorganization is to pro- vide opportunities for better management by focusing responsibilities for similar functions in a smaller number of agencies and administra- tions. Figure 4-1 and Table 4-2 reflect the October 1977 reorganization. Figure 4-1 presents an organizational chart of the department, with the major and minor funders of social knowledge production and appli- cation marked. The major funders of social knowledge production and application are centered around two organizational locations: the as- sistant secretary for conservation, research, and education and the director of agricultural economics, policy analysis and budget, who is equivalent in rank to assistant secretary. It can also be seen that the minor funders of social knowledge production and application are pre- dominantly operating agencies outside the two major organizational units. POLICY AREAS IN THE DEPARTMENT Table 4-3 presents agencies that conduct social knowledge production and application activities by policy area. The striking feature of the table is the number of policy areas in which the department is involved. Nearly half of the department's social knowledge production and application activities are in human resources (health, education, income security, and social services), a fact that reflects the department's concern for the social and physical

Department of Agriculture 45 TABLE 4-2 Department of Agriculture Agencies that Support Social Knowledge Production and Application: Profile (fiscal 1977, $millions) Predominant Organizational Location of Total Social Social Social Knowledge Knowledge Knowledge Agency after Reorgan- Production Production Production ization (Components and and and Prior to Consolidation Application Application Application Primary Goal in Parentheses) Obligations Activity Activity" or Audience" Agriculture Marketing 12.2 General Operating Knowledge for Service purpose agency third parties Economic Research 68.4 statistics and Statistics Service (Economic Research 31.9 Research R&D agency Improvement of Service) federal policies (Farmer Cooperative 2. 5 Research R&D agency Knowledge for Service) third parties (Statistical Reporting 34.0 General Statistical Collection of Service) purpose agency statistics Farm and Rural 0.2 statistics Development Administration (Farmers Home 0.1 General Operating Improvement of Administration) purpose agency federal programs statistics (Rural Development 0.1 Dissemination Operating Improvement of Service) agency federal policies Food and Agricultural 189.8 Science and Educa- tion Administration (Extension Service) 161.1 Dissemination Operating Knowledge for agency third parties (Cooperative State 27.2 Research R&D agency Knowledge for Research Service) third parties (Agricultural Research 1.6 Research R&D agency Knowledge for Service) third parties Food and Nutrition 6.2 Program Operating Improvement of Service evaluation agency federal programs Forest Service t.1 Research Operaling Improvement of agency federal programs Other agencies6 0.6 Research/ Operating Improvement of general agency federal programs purpose TOTAL 285.7 statistics Numbers may not total due to rounding. °See Chapter 2 for a more detailed discussion. 'Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service, Rural Electrification Service, and the Soil Con- servation Service.

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48 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES well-being of rural Americans. The remainder of the department's so- cial knowledge production and application activities are split almost evenly between community resources (economic growth, housing and community development, international affairs) and natural resources. Activities concerned with economic growth consist primarily of the department's economic research. Individual agencies within the department also have interesting pro- files. The Extension Service spends nearly 45 percent of its funds on health, reflecting the service's activities in food and nutrition. The service also spends one-third of its funds on education. For Further Information During the past several years, the Department of Agriculture's system of R&D support has come under much scrutiny. While studies have not focused on the role of social research within the agricultural R&D system, the findings and recommendations are applicable to the agency's support of social research and related activities. For further information on the agricultural research and development system, see: Special Oversight Review of Agricultural Research and Development. Report by the Subcommittee on Science. Research, and Technology and the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning and Analysis of the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives. 94th Congress, 2nd session. Serial QQ, August 1976. Agricultural Research and Development, Background Papers, Prepared for the Sub- committee on Science, Research, and Technology and the Subcommittee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning and Analysis of the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, 94th Congress, 1st session. Serial I. September 1975. Agricultural Research and Development, Special Oversight Hearings, Part I, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology and the Subcommit- tee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning and Analysis of the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, 94th Congress, 1st ses- sion, No. 11. June 1975. Agricultural Research and Development, Special Oversight Hearings, Part II, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Science, Research, and Technology and the Subcommit- tee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning and Analysis of the Committee on Science and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, 94th Congress, 1st ses- sion, No. 51. September and October 1975. National Agricultural Research Policy Act of 1976, Hearings before the Committee on Agriculture, House of Representatives, 94th Congress. 2nd session, Serial 94-TT, February 1976. World Food and Nutrition Study, Enhancement of Food Production for the United States, Report of the Board on Agriculture and Renewable Resources, National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Chapter 3. 1975. For further information on the Department of Agriculture as a whole, see List of Avail- able Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. Government

Department of Agriculture 49 Printing Office. Washington, D.C., or write Department of Agriculture, Fourteenth Street and Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C., 20250. AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 5 10.015 10.020 1.238 1.238 11.258 1976 90 10.448 10.538 1.291 1.291 1 1 .829 1977 90 10.809 10.899 1.336 1.336 12.235 The Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) is the operating agency that assists producers and handlers of agricultural commodities through various marketing and regulatory activities; it is responsible for devel- oping uniform standards of quality for agricultural products. Program Evaluation The agency conducts a small number of in-house evaluations of its marketing and regulatory programs. The evaluations, conducted by task forces comprised of staff from various USDA and government agencies, assess the degree to which programs accomplish their general purpose and the costs to various segments of the marketing system and recommend needed improvements in each program. General Purpose Statistics AMS, through its Market News Service, collects economic and market- ing information on the supply, demand, movement, and prices of ag- ricultural commodities. While the data collected by the agency are aimed at a specialized audience and could be classified as program or administrative data (a category excluded from social knowledge pro- duction and application), the Study Project felt that the Market News Service statistics serve as a major source of economic agricultural marketing data and can be used by a wider audience.

50 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES Dissemination The data collected by the Market News Service are widely dissemi- nated to the agricultural community by distribution through newspa- pers, radio, television, and direct mail. For Further Information Write Agricultural Marketing Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. ECONOMIC RESEARCH AND STATISTICS SERVICE The October 1977 reorganization of the Department of Agriculture consolidated the functions of four agencies into one—the Economic Research and Statistics Service. The new agency will report to the director of economics, policy analysis, and budget. An earlier de- partmental reorganization increased the responsibilities of the director of agricultural economics to include responsibility for the Office of Budget, Planning, and Evaluation and the World Food and Agricultural Outlook and Situation Board. Table 4-4 presents the agencies that were combined to form the Economic Research and Statistics Service. TABLE 4-4 Economic Research and Statistics Service (fiscal 1977, Smillions) Social Knowledge Production and Agencies Prior to Consolidation Application Obligations Economic Research Service 31.9 Farmer Cooperative Service 2.5 Statistical Reporting Service 34.0 Economic Management Support Center" TOTAL 68.4 "Not surveyed.

Department of Agriculture 51 ECONOMIC RESEARCH SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose union Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 22.112 22.112 4.592 4.592 26.704 1976 24.676 24.676 5.X94 5.894 30.570 W77 24.931 24. -81 6.994 6.994 31.925 The Economic Research Service (ERS) is the largest social research agency within USDA, and all of its research is social. The ERS dates back to 1922, when its predecessor, the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, was founded. The mission of ERS is to conduct economic research designed to provide information to public and private decision makers at all levels who are concerned with the allocation and uses of agricul- tural resources and rural life. It maintains close contact with USDA staff; approximately 40 percent of its research is conducted at the request of USDA officials. Research Most of the research activities are conducted in-house. A small amount of research (less than 10 percent) is done by contract, and ERS adminis- ters no research grants. Approximately one-fifth of its staff is located at land grant colleges and in other federal agencies, enabling them to work closely with state agriculture experiment stations and other federal agencies concerned with the problems of agriculture. ERS research is grouped into two areas of study and performed by six divisions: (1) Food and Fiber Economics (the Divisions of National Economic Analysis, Commodity Economics, and Foreign Demand and Competition); and (2) Resource and Development Economics (the Di- visions of Natural Resource Economics, Foreign Development, and Economic Development). The six divisions conduct research in nine program areas as follows (fiscal 1977 obligations are presented in par- entheses). 1. FOOD AND FIBER EcoNOMics($19.7 million) Economic Research and Analysis of Farm Programs and Policies (S3.3 million) This program:

52 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES o analyzes the impacts of proposed government programs and policies on agricultural production, prices, and incomes; o analyzes the income of farmers and changes in the capital and wealth structure of the farm sector; and o makes historical analyses of changes in American farming. Economic Research and Analysis of Farm Structure and Resource Use and Productivity ($2.5 million) This program: o identifies the current and future economic market structure of the U.S. agriculture industry; o studies and identifies the supply requirements necessary to meet current and future food and fiber needs; o estimates and analyzes the production of major crops and live- stock in terms of the resources used and efficiency of that use; and o estimates the average farm costs entailed in the production of major crop and livestock products. Supply, Demand, and Price Analysis—Forecasts and Projections ($4.6 million) This program: o appraises current farm market conditions (supply, demand, and prices) and forecasts future conditions; o identifies the impact that technological and economic change may have on supply and demand; o estimates the supply and demand relationship for farm com- modities; and o projects the nature of U.S. agriculture in the future, under al- ternative assumptions concerning major economic, social, and technological factors. Economic Research and Analysis of Market Structure and Per- formance ($5.7 million) This program: o identifies changes in the structure and performance of market subsectors and the causes and impacts of those changes on farmers, consumers, and the national economy; o estimates and analyzes the ranges of prices that occur in the food and fiber sector; o analyzes and evaluates the impact of public transportation policies on U.S. agriculture; and o identifies the U.S. consumer market for agriculture com- modities and then assists producers and distributors in developing those markets to their fullest potential.

Department of Agriculture 53 Economic Research and Analysis of Agriculture Trade and Policies ($3.6 million) This program: o estimates and forecasts (by country and commodity) U.S. and world agriculture trade, prices, and financial and monetary condi- tions; o makes long-term projections for the supply and demand for agricultural products by world, regions, and countries; o obtains information and analyzes weather-crop production re- lationships in foreign countries; o assesses the feasibility of establishing or expanding specific foreign markets; and o identifies the factors affecting the demand for U.S. agriculture products. 2. RESOURCE AND DEVELOPMENT ECONOM1 CS ($ 12.7 million) Social and Economic Research and Analysis to Assist in the Plan- ning and Development of Rural Areas ($2.9 million) This program: o identifies, evaluates, and makes projections of demographic characteristics and trends; o studies and identifies the characteristics of rural labor forces; o studies the economic and social characteristics of manpower programs; o measures the socioeconomic characteristics of rural people and communities; o analyzes the adequacy of governmental and nongovernmental facilities and services in rural areas (water, sewage, medical care, education, housing, energy, and transportation); o develops economic profiles and assesses prospects for eco- nomic growth in rural areas; and o determines the effects of alternative public policies and pro- grams on regional income, growth, and development. Economic Research and Analysis of the Use and Development of Natural Resources ($1.3 million) This program: o estimates the impacts of natural resource policies and programs on community income, growth, development, and resource own- ership; o establishes level of resources needed to meet demands for ag- ricultural production, urban expansion, and other land uses;

54 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES o conducts economic inventories of the nation's land and water resources and identifies changes in ownership and land use over time and between geographic areas; and o improves methods for planning natural resources and evaluat- ing alternative means for conserving and developing land and water. Economic Research and Analysis of Consumer Issues ($0.3 mil- lion) This program obtains information to aid the consumer in the purchase of agricultural products; and identifies the needs and pref- erences of institutional buyers and individual homemakers and as- sesses the performance of the food and fiber sector in meeting them. Economic Analysis and Research to Improve Human Nutrition ($0.1 million) Financed in large part by the Food and Nutrition Service, this program evaluates USDA programs aimed at alleviating nutritional deficiencies of the poor, i.e.. the School Lunch, Food Stamp, and Food and Nutrition Education Programs. Dissemination ERS obligated nearly $6.9 million for dissemination activities in fiscal 1977. Nearly $6 million of this total was spent by the Foreign Develop- ment Division (under Resource and Development Economics) for technical assistance and analysis to aid foreign development. The Foreign Development Division selects USDA experts to aid developing countries in increasing farm output, improving food distribution and quality of diets, and improving the use or protection of land and water resources with the latest research findings. This program can be viewed as a "foreign" extension service. The remainder of ERS funds for dissemination is spent on the publica- tion and distribution of their research studies. Over 100 separate re- search studies and nearly 30 periodicals are published annually. Dis- semination funds are also spent on exhibits, demonstrations, brochures, fact sheets, and articles written especially for the farm press. For Further Information See Research Results for FY1976 and Plans for FY1977 and FY1978 (December 1976), a publication of ERS. To obtain this document or additional information on the activities of ERS. write Eco- nomic Research Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250.

Department of Agriculture 55 FARMER COOPERATIVE SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Ycar search onstraO'ons ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 1.156 167 1.323 268 837 1.105 2.428 1976 1.254 167 1.421 791 12 2.482 1977 1.272 207 1.479 156 913 1.069 2.548 The mission of the Farmer Cooperative Service (PCS) is to conduct research and provide technical assistance to aid farmers in increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of agricultural cooperatives. Ag- ricultural cooperatives, long used by family farmers to increase their incomes, engage in marketing farm products, purchasing production supplies, and performing related business services. PCS is a highly specialized R&D agency that conducts research and disseminates information to a specific audience in one sector of the agricultural community. It supports a variety of activities that either produce or apply knowledge aimed at assisting farmers engaged in cooperative ventures. Research The agency's research, most of it conducted in-house, examines the financial, organizational, legal, social, and economic aspects of cooperative agricultural ventures; an example of such research might be a market efficiency study. Research conducted by PCS enables USDA to obtain a solid base of information to provide farmers with relevant, expert assistance pertaining to their cooperatives. A concerted effort is made to ensure that the agency's research has direct application to current and future cooperative needs. General Purpose Statistics Statistics are collected by PCS to detect changes in the structure, opera- tion, and growth trends of cooperatives. The data help to identify and support future research and technical assistance activities and are used by legislative and executive decision makers in formulating agriculture policy.

56 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES Development of Materials PCS publishes and distributes materials about agricultural cooperatives and maintains a central storehouse of information about farmer cooperatives. A monthly magazine on cooperatives is published by the agency. Dissemination PCS provides research-based technical assistance to cooperatives on a full range of organizational and management problems confronting cooperatives. Technical assistance is provided on such topics as the feasibility of forming a new cooperative, the merits of merging existing cooperatives, and the development of more viable relationships be- tween cooperatives and other business institutions. Requests for tech- nical assistance can come from a few farmers directly or through the management or board of directors of cooperative federations. For Further Information Write Farmer Cooperative Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- men t of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 838 26.468 27 ,306 27.306 1976 1.972 29.233 31.205 31.205 1977 2.007 32.031 34.038 34.038 The Statistical Reporting Service (SRS) administers the USDA'S pro- grams of collecting and publishing national and state agricultural statis- tics. The data collected by SRS are essential to farmers, processors, and handlers in making production and marketing decisions and to legis- lators and federal officials in developing and administering agricultural programs. In addition to its primary responsibility of collecting agricultural statistics, SRS has several other important functions. It is responsible

Department of Agriculture 57 for the review, coordination, and monitoring of all data-gathering sur- veys conducted by other USDA agencies. This function involves the review of all proposed statistical forms and surveys requiring clearance by the Office of Management and Budget and the coordination of all interdepartmental and intradepartmental programs for the improve- ment of agricultural statistics and related data. SRS performs technical assignments for other federal and state agencies. Research SRS has an in-house research capability aimed at improving the statisti- cal methods and techniques used in obtaining agricultural data. Re- search is conducted to develop better sampling procedures, yield fore- casting and survey techniques for the agency. Current research ac- tivities include: developing new sampling techniques that combine lists of farms and aerial photographs with area sampling frames; construct- ing mathematical models for forecasting crop yields from objective counts and measuring plant characteristics; and reducing reporting and other nonsampling errors by improving questionnaire design and devis- ing better field, editing, and processing procedures. The research proj- ects are tested by pilot surveys under actual operating conditions and then, if proven effective, placed into operation. General Purpose Statistics SRS collects the official national estimates on agricultural production and other farm-related activities. Agricultural production statistics primarily center around estimates of approximately 150 crop and live- stock products. Most estimates of major crop acreages and livestock inventories are based on a complex system of enumerative probability sample surveys of producers, processors, buyers, and others as- sociated with agriculture. Indicators of these estimates are obtained by mail, telephone, personal interview, and field visits. SRS makes fore- casts of crop yields per acre and production of major crops based on measurement and observations in a probability sample of field plots. It also collects data on farm employment, farm wage rates, stocks and values of farm commodities, indexes of prices paid and received by farmers, and parity prices. For Further Information Write Statistical Reporting Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250.

58 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES FARM AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION The 1977 reorganization of the Department of Agriculture created the new Farm and Rural Development Administration (FRDA), which com- bines the functions of the Farmers Home Administration and the Rural Development Administration. The functions of the Rural Development Administration have been combined with certain activities of the Farmers Home Administration to become the program, policy analysis, and evaluation staff reporting directly to the administrator of FRDA. The change of the Rural Development Service into a high-level policy planning unit within FRDA will assist in the administration of the broad range of rural and farm programs conducted by FRDA. Table 4-5 presents the agencies consolidated to form the new FRDA. TABLE 4-5 Farm and Rural Development Administration (fiscal 1977, $millions) Social Knowledge Production and Agencies Prior to Consolidation Application Obligations Farmers Home Administration 0.1 Rural Development Service 0.1 TOTAL 0.2 FARMERS HOME ADMINISTRATION Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose taiion Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 10 50 60 60 1976 35 16 50 101 101 1977 35 14 50 99 99 The Farmers Home Administration provides financial credit to rural citizens who are unable to get credit from other sources at reasonable

Department of Agriculture 59 rates and terms. In fiscal 1976 and 1977, the agency contracted with the Economic Research Service to study the availability of essential com- munity facilities, such as water and waste disposal systems, in rural areas. The agency conducts a small number of in-house evaluations on the effectiveness of their various programs. The agency collects gen- eral purpose statistics dealing with rural economics. For Further Information Write Farm and Rural Development Administration, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. RURAL DEVELOPMENT SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 95 95 55 55 I50 1976 60 60 60 1977 75 75 75 The Rural Development Service is responsible for coordinating a nationwide rural development program. It seeks to work out arrange- ments and procedures that will result in the better delivery of federal program resources to rural communities and areas. In fiscal 1975, the Rural Development Service, in conjunction with the Farmers Home Administration, supported a major study of the rural health care deliv- ery system. The agency also conducts an active dissemination program of supplying publications, computer retrieval services, and technical assistance to rural communities. For Further Information Write Farm and Rural Development Administration, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250.

60 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES FOOD AND AGRICULTURE SCIENCE AND EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION The October 1977 reorganization of the Department of Agriculture created the Food and Agriculture Science and Education Administra- tion (FASEA). The new administration was created to increase coopera- tion and coordination in the performance of agricultural research by federal departments and agencies, states, state agricultural experiment stations, colleges and universities, and user groups. The assistant sec- retary for conservation, research, and education will continue to over- see all research and extension activities brought under FASEA. Table 4-6 presents the agencies that were consolidated into FASEA. TABLE 4-6 Food and Agricultural Science and Education Administration (fiscal 1977, $millions) Agencies Prior to Consolidation Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations Agricultural Research Service 1.6 Cooperative State Research Service 27.2 Extension Service 161.0 National Agricultural Library" TOTAL 189.8 "Not surveyed. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- (ion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 1.332 I.332 1.332 1976 1.563 1.563 1.563 1977 1.635 1.635 1.615 The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is the largest research and development agency within USDA and one that has no operating pro-

Department of Agriculture 61 grams. Of its total R&D budget for fiscal 1977 of $266.7 million, $1.6 million (0.5 percent) was devoted to social research. ARS is a subunit of the new FASEA. ARS'S basic mission is to provide scientific knowledge and technol- ogy to enable farmers to produce efficiently, conserve the environ- ment, and meet the food and fiber needs of the American people. To carry out that mission, the agency conducts research and development on animal production, plant production, the use and improvement of soil, air, and water, and the marketing, use, and effects of agricultural products. Nearly 95 percent of the agency's R&D is conducted intra- murally—ARS has the second-largest civilian intramural R&D capacity in the federal government. With the exception of contract survey work, all of the agency's social research is conducted in-house. Research ARS'S social research activities are conducted in two programs. THE ECONOMICS OF FAMILY RESOURCES This program provides infor- mation aimed at improving family uses of resources and establishing safe and economic procedures for food management and preparation. In addition to short-term research, the program conducts continuing research on: income expenditures for rural families and changes in family assets and liabilities; identification of factors relevant to family financial decision making, including the use of medical care services; and the current costs of raising children in urban and rural environ- ments. THE ECONOMICS OF AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES ThJS program examines the economic feasibility of new practices in crop and live- stock production and new technologies for storage transportation and the marketing of agricultural commodities. Continuing lines of inquiry for this program include the study of reducing costs in distribution and marketing systems and the development of methods to increase the efficiency of consumer marketing. For Further Information Write Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250.

62 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES COOPERATIVE STATE RESEARCH SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Deve 1 op- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 22.487 22.487 22.487 1976 25.400 25.400 25.400 1977 27.189 27.189 27.189 The Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS) is the agency that ad- ministers research grants for USDA. Its budget of $123 million—of which nearly 25 percent was for social research activities—is the second-largest R&D budget in the department. Unlike other USDA agencies, CSRS conducts a very small amount of intramural research. The agency will be combined with the Extension Service to form a new subunit, the Cooperative Science and Education Service. The largest portion of CSRS grants (over 75 percent) supports state agricultural experiment stations (SAES). The Hatch Act of 1887 (not to be confused with the Hatch Political Activity Act of 1939) authorized each state to set up an agricultural experiment station at a land grant institution. These stations were given the responsibility to conduct research, investigations, and experiments to develop and improve rural life and obtain maximum performance from the agricultural sector. There are currently 55 SAESS in the United States. CSRS funds for the experiment stations are apportioned by Congress for distribution to the states by a statutory formula. In addition to the funds received from the CSRS, the SAESS receive funds from other federal agencies, state legisla- tures, local sources, and industry. The largest source of financial sup- port for each state agricultural experiment station comes from state appropriations. In this survey, however, only the social research ac- tivities supported by federal funds are included. The decentralized research system supported by the CSRS makes it unique among federal R&D agencies. The theory behind a decen- tralized R&D system is that local R&D units understand the problems of a local area better—especially in the case of agriculture—because each state differs in climate, soil, market outlets, and other local condi- tions. Local R&D units are also considered to be better able to improve the economic and social welfare of rural families. Research conducted by the SAESS is supervised broadly by the De- partment of Agriculture through the CSRS, which periodically reviews

Department of Agriculture 63 SAES programs and projects. Projects initiated in SAESS take into ac- count broad guidelines developed by CSRS. Theoretically, all projects are subject to CSRS approval, but only 5 percent has ever been turned down by the CSRS staff. For the most part, each SAES develops its own program of activities to meet the agriculture needs of its state, relying almost entirely on its research staff to generate program and project ideas. Research CSRS administers three grant programs, all of which include social re- search activities. Of the three programs, the first is the largest funder of social research. GRANTS TO SAES UNDER AUTHORITY OF THE HATCH ACT OF 1887 The SAESS receive funds for work on six topics: (1) natural resources; (2) forest resources; (3) crop resources; (4) animal resources; (5) people, communities, and institutions; and (6) competition, trade adjustments, and income policy. The bulk of the program's social research activity is concentrated on the fifth and sixth topics. A limited amount of social research is conducted on natural resources, primarily on outdoor rec- reation and environmental quality. Social research on "people, communities, and institutions" covers a wide range of topics such as food and nutrition, food safety, rural development, and early childhood. Research on food and nutrition is aimed at developing information needed to establish nutrient require- ments for specific age-groups. Research is conducted on ways to im- prove the quality of life in rural America. Social research on "competition, trade adjustments, and income pol- icy" includes work on farm adjustments, prices and incomes, and the economic aspects of marketing and competition and on developing and evaluating alternative policies and programs for enhancing agriculture marketing practices. GRANTS AND CONTRACTS FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH UNDER PL 89- 106 This program, which has two components, was developed as a supplement to the Hatch Act of 1887 to enable USDA to provide re- sources for specific problems of national interest in addition to the normal emphasis of the act. The first component consists of grants made to SAESS, colleges and universities, and other research organizations. An annual program so- licitation memo is sent to all potential applicants stating the priority

64 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES research topics for a given year. In fiscal 1976, the priority topics were: environmental quality; food and nutrition; beef and pork production; soybeans; pest management; transportation; marketing and storage; forage, pasture, and range; genetic vulnerability; and pesticide clear- ance and safe use. Social research is conducted on environmental qual- ity, food and nutrition, and transportation. The second component supports research, much of it social, in land grant colleges and the Tuskegee Institute. It focuses on the develop- ment of human resource potential, particularly on the family and family life: family nutritional status; childhood education; cognitive and phys- ical development; and the effects of family, society, and the physical environment on child development. This program also supports re- search on the improvement of economic opportunities for rural popula- tions. GRANTS FOR COOPERATIVE FOREST RESEARCH UNDER THE MC1NTIRE STENNIS ACT This is a formula grant program for land grant colleges, SAESS, and other state-supported colleges and universities offering graduate training in forestry. The funds are used to encourage states to carry out a program of forest research. Social research in this program includes: management and protection of forest lands for outdoor recre- ation; and development of policies for the management of forest lands for harvesting and marketing of forest products. For Further Information Write Cooperative State Research Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington. D.C. 20250. EXTENSION SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General lmplem.ii Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 2.268 2.268 157.531 157.531 159.799 1976 1.867 1.867 165.984 165.984 167.851 1977 1.867 1.867 159.138 159.138 161.005 The Extension Service is the application arm of the Department of Agriculture. Its mission is to take the results of research produced by

Department of Agriculture 65 federal and state agricultural research units and interpret them, dis- seminate them, and encourage their use. Under the 1977 reorganiza- tion, the Extension Service was combined with the Cooperative State Research Service to form a new subunit, the Cooperative Science and Education Service. In 1914, the Extension Service was given a man- date to "aid in diffusing among the people of the United States useful and practical information on subjects relating to agricultural home eco- nomics and to encourage the application of the same." The Extension Service reflects a national agricultural policy to build an efficient decentralized system composed of private farmers and businesses. To carry out that policy, USDA felt it essential to make research results available to farmers, ranchers, those in industry, and others through an effective, publicly supported delivery system. The objective was to ensure that research results and scientific know-how would be used by farmers and rural Americans to increase both food production and their own well-being. The Extension Service is one of three partners in the Cooperative Extension Service; the others are state and county governments. All three share in financing, planning, and conducting the education pro- grams of the service. (This survey reports only the federal contribution to the Cooperative Extension Service.) The service has headquarters in each of the land grant universities and field stations in nearly every county in the United States. The key workers in this system are the state extension specialists, whose job is to assemble and interpret re- search findings, develop teaching materials, and provide technical as- sistance to the county extension agent, who then works directly with individuals in solving their problems and providing them with new information. The issue of whether the activities of the Extension Service should be included in this survey of social knowledge production and applica- tion activities involves two key questions: (1) Are the activities of the service social in nature? (2) Is the information disseminated by its staff based on research? This issue was the subject of debate among mem- bers of the Study Project, who decided that if an activity is based on research, it then meets their definition of dissemination. A close examination of the Extension Service programs showed that approximately 70 percent of the activities could clearly be called social. The activities fall into four program areas: agricultural and natural resources; family development and home economics; youth develop- ment; and community resource development. The last three categories are totally social and account for 60 percent of the budget. Of the remaining 40 percent spent on agricultural and natural resources, ap- proximately one-fourth of the activities in the agricultural and natural

66 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES resources area were social. Dissemination of agricultural research was excluded. It can be argued that in practice the activities of the Extension Serv- ice at the local level are not research-based and would be more appro- priately categorized as a programmatic activity rather than as a knowl- edge production and application activity; inclusion of the Extension Service would greatly inflate the survey's total for dissemination and application activities. The counter argument is that the Extension Serv- ice, long held as a prime example of an R&D dissemination network, has been cited as a model for proposed dissemination networks in other social problem areas, such as education. In the preparation of this survey, the Study Project on Social Re- search and Development did not have the resources to study the ac- tivities of the Extension Service firsthand. Similar issues were faced several times by the Study Project when considering research activities for inclusion in the survey—should agency policy be accepted as fact or should it be disregarded when conflicting information is provided? Members of the Extension Service staff stated that their dissemination activities are, in fact, research-based and stem from research findings by federal and state research units. Examination of agency documenta- tion lent support to this position. When both sides of the issue were presented to the members of the Study Project, they decided that the activities of the Extension Service clearly fit their definition of dis- semination and application and should be included in the survey. It should be emphasized that these activities were categorized as dissemination—not research. The activities of the service fall clearly outside the definition of research or development. Program Evaluation In recent years, the Extension Service has emphasized program evalu- ations at both the state and national level. These evaluations attempt to determine the impact of extension programs on the clientele groups for which the programs have been designed. Dissemination As noted earlier, the activities of the Extension Service fall into four program areas. (Obligations for fiscal 1977 are presented in par- entheses.)

Department of Agriculture 67 AGRICULTURAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES ($18.0 million) The social aspects of this program area—one fourth of the total—deal with im- proving the income of farmers by increasing their economic under- standing of the agricultural production and marketing system. The pro- gram also attempts to provide new tools to farmers to improve their decision making. FAMILY LIVING AND HOME ECONOMICS ($72.2 million) This program area, the largest of the Extension Service, provides families with edu- cational programs and information on nutrition, health, housing, home management, child development, and consumer information. Special programs have been introduced to give expanded nutrition assistance and family education to low-income families. Extension Service ac- tivities in this program area often center around disseminating innova- tive methods and materials concerning consumer resource manage- ment. YOUTH DEVELOPMENT ($52.3 million) These programs attempt to help youths in developing employable skills and exploring career alterna- tives and to develop family living skills. Greater emphasis is now placed on disseminating information concerning science education, human nutrition, environmental education, drug abuse, and consumer education. COMMUNITY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ($16.5 million) This program aims to help entire communities with their problems by disseminating information to local officials and groups. Emphasis has been placed in recent years on rural development. Information on community plan- ning and development is disseminated on housing problems, environ- mental improvements, health facilities, and economic development. For Further Information Write Extension Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250.

68 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES FOOD AND NUTRITION SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 940 50 2.200 205 3.395 250 3»7 647 4.042 1976 I.1I0 200 550 225 2.085 240 483 743 2.828 1977 1.070 400 3.650 255 5.375 320 512 832 6.207 The Food and Nutrition Service administers USDA'S food assistance programs, which are aimed at improving the dietary adequacy of the U.S. population, especially people with low incomes. The agency ad- ministers four programs: the Food Stamp Program, Child and Nutrition Programs (school lunch program, school breakfast program, etc.), the Food Distribution Program, and the Supplemental Food Program. As a result, the dominant activity of the agency is the evaluation of its own programs rather than the support of research for the use of others. Program Evaluation Obligations for program evaluations within the agency tend to fluctuate greatly from year to year, because the decision to evaluate programs is often influenced by external as well as internal factors. Program evalu- ations are conducted both by contract and by in-house staff. The large increase in fiscal 1977 funds for program evaluations reflects the agen- cy's decision to launch three major evaluations of the controversial food stamp program. An earlier extensive evaluation examined the school breakfast and lunch programs. Other Knowledge Production and Application Activities A small amount of research is supported by the agency and conducted by agreement with the Economic Research Service and the Agricul- tural Research Service. Statistics for the agency are collected by the Statistical Reporting Service. The agency contracts with state govern- ments to conduct small-scale demonstrations to test improved delivery procedures. The agency supports the development of educational ma- terials on nutrition. Finally, the Food and Nutrition Service funds an education and dissemination center on nutrition, which is administered by the National Agricultural Library.

Department of Agriculture 69 For Further Information Write Food and Nutrition Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. FOREST SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 5.607 300 5.907 8 1.500 1.508 7.415 1976 5.808 300 6.108 35 1.685 1.720 7.828 1977 6.116 300 6.416 45 1.678 1.723 8.139 The Forest Service is responsible for managing and protecting federal forest lands, conducting forest research, and working with state and private agencies to protect nonfederal forests. While the management of federal forest lands consumes over three-fourths of the agency's budget, the Forest Service does have a major program of research and development concerning forestry. Forestry research is conducted on: forest and range management, forest protection, forest products and engineering, forest resource eco- nomics, and forest research construction. As in the rest of the depart- ment, most of the Forest Service's research is conducted in-house. Research The agency's social research is conducted within three major pro- grams. (The obligations for fiscal 1977 are in parentheses.) ECONOMICS AND MARKETING RESEARCH ($3.9 million) This program seeks to increase the efficiency of public and private investments in forest management programs and facilitate the optimum development of the multiple uses of forest and related lands consistent with en- vironmental quality. Research is conducted on: o the economic efficiency of alternative ways of harvesting, process- ing, distributing, and using forest products; o assessing the impacts of alternative forest land management pro- grams on the economy and the environment;

70 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES o economic aspects of forest crop production, resource productiv- ity, and marketing potential of forest products; and o developing criteria for the efficient allocation of the $1 billion now spent annually on the protection, development, and management of the nation's forest lands and related resources. FOREST RECREATION RESEARCH ($1.5 million) This program seeks to determine the recreational requirements of the forest-using public and ways in which that demand can best be met. The goal of the program is to increase the attractiveness and social value of forests for people by developing knowledge and management systems that will guide and enhance the use of forest environment for outdoor recreation and coordinate the management of outdoor recreation with other forest practices. Research is conducted on: determining the economic im- pacts of forest recreation use and development on employment and income in rural America and developing systems for estimating visitor requirements, reducing costs of providing for visitor health and safety, and lessening damages of resources from recreation use. URBAN FORESTRY RESEARCH ($0.7 million) This program is aimed at providing information to metropolitan decision makers concerning the maintenance of a proper balance between urban population and the surrounding environment. An example of research on this topic is studies to determine and evaluate the potential and latent demand of urban residents for outdoor recreation. For Further Information Write Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington. D.C. 20250.

Department of Agriculture 71 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: OTHER AGENCIES AGRICULTURAL STABILIZATION AND CONSERVATION SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 48 209 257 257 1976 64 162 226 226 1977 7 162 169 169 This agency administers USDA'S land use and commodity programs, which are aimed at voluntary production adjustments, resource protec- tion, and price stabilization. The agency collects economic statistics on a variety of commodities and conducts in-house program evaluations. For Further Information Write Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. RURAL ELECTRIFICATION SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 44 44 44 1976 46 46 46 !977 48 48 48 This agency finances electric and telephone facilities in rural areas to ensure that these services are available to rural Americans. The agen- cy's statistical activities consist of publishing an annual report that presents financial and statistical information on the operation of elec- tric and telephone facilities in rural areas.

72 SURVEY OF FEDERAL AGENCIES For Further Information Write Rural Electrification Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington. D.C. 20250. SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE Social Knowledge Production and Application Obligations (Sthousands) Knowledge Production Activities Knowledge Application Activities Policy Policy Formula- Program General Implemen- Develop- Fiscal Re- tion Dem- Evalu- Purpose tation Dem- ment of Dissem- Year search onstrations ation Statistics Total onstrations Materials ination Total TOTAL 1975 300 57 357 357 1976 331 33 364 364 1977 331 33 364 3M This agency has the responsibility for developing and carrying out a national soil and water conservation program in cooperation with land- owners, developers, community planning agencies, regional resource groups, and other agencies of government. The agency's social re- search activities are conducted primarily in connection with river basin surveys. These surveys examine the agriculture and related economics of river basins and analyze land and water use in relation to the total economy of the basin. Interregional economic analyses are conducted in connection with the river basin surveys. The agency conducts, largely in-house, evaluations to determine the impact of their pro- grams. An evaluation recently studied the impact of water supply fore- casting on agricultural incomes in 11 western states. For Further Information Write Soil Conservation Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250.