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EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 19 of mongrelization of Cuban corn · makes selection of "typical" or "average" ears of commercial races difficult, twenty-five ears which best represented the race were chosen for careful descrip- tion. In general, an ear was used for description of a race only if, in the opinion of the author, a Cuban farmer would select it for sowing. Concepts of farmer preference were based on an extensive series of conversations and careful interviews con- ducted in all parts of Cuba. It should be pointed out that measure- ments of such ideal specimens are not necessarily "representa- tive" of a race as it exists in Cuba. Ear length and diameter of Tuson, for example, are probably somewhat greater in the speci- mens studied than in most ears of that race, for the grower of Tuson prefers large cylindrical ears. The procedure of selecting the "best" available ears of a race for description thus has certain shortcomings. To facilitate easy comparison of Cuban races of maize with those of Mexico, characters of plant and tassel and most of those of the ear were measured as described by Wellhausen et al. ( 45). For kernel denting, the scale suggested by Anderson ( 1) and fol- lowed by Brown ( 8) was used. Endosperm color was determined by comparison with a standard color chart ( 7) following removal of the pericarp. Dimensions of the cupule and length of glume, cupule, and pedicel hairs were measured from camera Iucida sketches. Thickness of the "schlerenchyma zone" ( 30) of the cob rachis was determined by subtracting pith diameter from rachis diameter and dividing by two. Frequencies of midcob, pericarp, and cob colors were studied in a random collection of nearly 1000 ears made in 1954-55. EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA From the standpoint of economic use, Cuban maize may be classified into two broad types: corn grown for sale and corn produced for domestic use only. Since Oriente province is the center of commercial corn production in Cuba, it is perhaps not surprising that the distributions in Cuba of three commercial varieties, Tuson, Argentino, and Canilla, are more or less re- stricted to that region. Tuson and Canilla, being dent types and
20 RACES OF MAIZE thus highly susceptible to attack by granary weevils, are not popular with the small farmers of western Cuba who store their corn in cribs for several months. Maiz Argentino is a low-yielding flint grown chiefly for industrial conversion to corn meal. A fourth variety, Maiz Criollo, is a general-purpose corn grown on almost all farms in western Cuba for domestic use and in Oriente for sale as well. In addition to Maiz Criollo, popcorn is grown for domestic use by a few Cuban farmers whose families enjoy popped corn, often eating it with sugar or molasses. A white pop and an occasional red-pericarped variant of it are grown in several widely scattered towns in Pinar del Rio, Habana, Las Villas, and Oriente provinces. Two farmers in Las Villas were found in possession of a rice-type orange popcorn used mainly for feeding young chickens. Finally, a white dent variety strikingly similar to a well known Mexican race was encountered at a single farm in a remote, mountainous town in eastern Cuba, where it was considered to produce a good grade of corn meal. Table 1, based on collections made at seventy-one farms in 1954-55, shows the approximate frequency of occurrence of the races of maize in Cuba. Not included are the discoveries of White Pop and White Dent in Oriente province in 1953. "Eastern provinces" are Oriente and Camagiiey; "western prov- inces" are Pinar del Rio, Habana, Matanzas, and Las Villas. Total percentages exceed 100 because some farms reported more than one race. TABLE 1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF FARMS REPORTING INDICA TED RACES OF CUBAN MAIZE Race Eastern Provinces Western Provinces Total o/o '/o o/o Criollo 38.5 93.5 64.2 Can ilia 58.3 31.4 Argentino 19.4 9.7 14.9 Tus6n 19.4 10.4 White Pop 6.5 3.0 Yellow Pop 3.2 1.5 Total 135.6 112.4 125.4
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 21 Only three of the seven varieties are possibly indigenous, in the sense that they may have been grown in Cuba by the aboriginal inhabitants before the discovery of that island by Columbus. The rest are considered probable post-Columbian introductions, chiefly on the basis of historical evidence. They are included in this report because they are now more or less well established in Cuba and play some part in the daily life of the ordinary farmer. No attempt has been made to include here the many North American hybrids continually being imported by relatively wealthy Cubans who have seen such corn at fairs or in the United States and make special efforts to introduce seed. I MAIZ CRIOLLO Plants. Tall, 2.2 to 3.2 m.; summer crop early maturing; no tillers; 0-2 rows of prop roots; 12 to 16 wide, very long leaves; venation index low; 1-2 ears, the uppermost about 0.9 m. below base of tassel; sun-red color common but not intense; purple color often intense but not common. Seedling sun-red leaf colors: tip 100%, margin 28%, blade none, sheath 89%, midrib 31%, auricle none. Pubescence slight; moderately susceptible to rust; chromosome knobs 6 or 7. Tassels. Long, very highly branched; about 257'o of branches secondary; tertiary branches infrequent. Condensation index low. Ears, external characters. Medium to long, cylindrical with slight taper toward tip; butt often slightly swollen. 12 to 16 rows; shank thick; midcob color in 347'o of ears examined. Kernels medium sized, with soft starch extending to apex; no denting in 13o/o of ears examined. Husk striations prominent; endosperm hard, saffron yellow to tangerine orange; aleurone colorless (with very rare exceptions); pericarp color common (pew in 13% of ears examined). Glumes colored in 50.2% of ears studied. Average number of husks 15.6, thick, coarse textured, tightly wrapped around ear. Ears, internal characters. Ear diameter 46-53 mm.; cob diame- ter 28-41 mm.; rachis diameter 17-24 mm.; kernel length 10-12 mm.; kernel volume 0.26 cc.; estimated rachilla length 3.2 mm.;
22 RACES OF MAIZE cob/ rachis index low, 1.67; ear length/ rachis index medium, 9.6; glume/ kernel index medium, 0.62; rachillaj kernel index high, 0.29; pedicel hairs 0.2 to 0.6 mm. long, absent, sparse, or very dense; cupule 5.2 mm. wide, 0.8 mm. high, 1.0 mm. deep; cupule FIG. 2. Criollo. Hard yellow grains in which the soft-starch column extends to the apex of the kernel, producing a white cap, are the outstanding feature of this race, which is common in the West Indies and in coastal regions of South America from Brazil to Panama. In eastern Cuba introgression from Argentino, Canilla, and Tus6n tends to produce relatively long, slightly conical ears. Ears collected west of Camagi.iey are generally somewhat stubbier than those figured here. Scale 1 em. =- 2.2 em. hairs 0.2 to 0.5 mm. long, sparse to dense; rachis flap mostly 2.2 mm. wide, prominent; lower glumes horny to bony, the margins mostly angulate, surface hairs mostly 0.2 mm. long, dense, few, or none, mostly lateral; marginal hairs 0.3 to 0.6 mm. long,
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 23 sparse to dense; upper glumes papery to fleshy, venation mostly moderately weak, the margins straight or slightly indented, basal hairs few, mostly 0.2 mm. long; tunicate allele tuw; rachis tissue hard. Distribution and importance in Cuba. Maiz Criollo, the chief general-purpose corn of Cuba, is grown on nearly every farm of the provinces west of Oriente: Pinar del Rio, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, and Camagiiey. It is also common in Oriente province, although dents and Hints are grown on a somewhat larger scale for sale in national and foreign markets. In a sample of 369 ears CRI0l4.0 FIG. 3. Ear cross-sec.:tion diagrams of the races of Cuban maize are natural size and were drawn according to measurements listed in Table 18. Stippled area indicates schlerenchyma zone of rachis. Dotted line indicates base of kernel; solid line im- mediately exterior to it encloses zone of glume tissue. collected at random in three commercial granaries in Oriente, 28 per cent were later classified as Criollo. Probably the chief reason for the importance of Maiz Criollo in the western provinces is that many farmers know of no other variety. When asked what type of corn they grow, they frequently answered, "Maiz cubano" ( Cuban corn ) or "Maiz corriente" (ordinary corn), or finally, if pressed "Maiz Criollo." Others who have grown "Maiz Gibara," the Cuban dent corn widely distributed recently by the Cuban Ministry of Agriculture, have for the most part returned to the Criollo, stating that they "don't like" the former. One suspects that, when confronted with a
24 RACES OF MAIZE choice of the two varieties, many fanners would continue to grow the Criollo simply because they tend to resist change. An important reason for the popularity of Maiz Criollo among farmers producing corn for home use only is their strong belief in its ability to resist granary weevils. About half the farmers in western Cuba who stated that they had tried "Maiz Gibara" but later returned to "Maiz Criollo" gave poor weevil resistance as their reason for abandoning the former variety. Weevil resistance is certainly an important consideration to the small Cuban farmer. He must wait about four months between the harvest of the "winter" crop in January and the sowing of the spring crop, usually in late April or early May. Frequently the winter crop fails be- cause of insufficient rainfall. Facilities for storage are mostly primitive: a thatched shelter for swine and poultry with a com- partment under the roof in which the unshucked dry ears are piled is probably the most common arrangement. Under such conditions, a combination of tightly fitting, tough husks and hard grains with a low percentage of soft starch is commonly believed to minimize weevil damage. Maiz Criollo, according to the Florida State Department of Agriculture (Komarek, 25), possesses these characteristics and is, in fact, very resistant to weevils. Origin and relationships. Brown ( 8) found .Maiz Criollo throughout the West Indies and identified it with the "Coastal Tropical Flint" which Cutler (14) had found common in coastal eastern South America. There is no reason to question this identi- fication. Ears from Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil in the maize collection of Professor P. C. Mangelsdorf also match much material obtained in Cuba. This is almost certain proof that Maiz Criollo had its origin outside Cuba, probably in South America. Its wide distribution in Cuba suggests the hypothesis that it was intro- duced there by the Sub-Taino Arawak between 1200 and 1400 A.D. ( cf. Rouse, 40). Other aboriginal varieties now more or less restricted to eastern Cuba may have been introduced following the later invasion of eastern Oriente by the Taino Arawak, about 1440 A.D. Other morphological evidence, however, suggests that some forms of Maiz Criollo may be of recent origin in Cuba. Its ears are characterized by orange-yellow grains with a soft-starch cap
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 25 but no denting, thick cobs with a slight taper toward the tip, slightly swollen butts, and relatively hard, stiff glumes. In these respects and in many quantitative characters as well, Maiz Criollo is intermediate between two other Cuban races, Maiz Argentino and Tus6n. In Oriente province, ears virtually indistinguishable from Maiz Criollo of western Cuba were collected at farms whose owners were attempting to grow Maiz Argentino. Usually it was not difficult to find the putative dent parent of the mongrel at the same or an adjacent farm. These considerations suggest that Maiz Criollo may have had its origin in Oriente province, since in Cuba the putative parents occur together only there. If this were the case, however, Maiz Criollo must have acquired its vast range throughout the Carib- bean and coastal eastern South America since 1200 A.D., when the Arawak first arrived in Cuba. This seems so unlikely that polyphyletic origins are suggested for the race as it occurs in Cuba: one prehistoric, in northeastern South America, with the Brazilian Cateto and Venezuelan cylindrical dent as possible parents; the other recent, in eastern Cuba, the product of intro- gression of Cuban dent germplasm into Maiz Argentino. Since the Cuban dents are apparently identical with those of Venezuela, and Maiz Argentino is the direct descendent of a Cateto flint recently introduced to Cuba, the putative parents are essentially the same in both cases. Importance outside Cuba. Maiz Criollo is known widely out- side Cuba as "Caribbean Flint," "Creole Flint," and "Cuban Yellow Flint" (Brown, 8; Komarek, 25). Improved selections of this type of corn made by C. G. Del Valle, formerly of the Estaci6n Experimental Agron6mica, Santiago de las Vegas, have enjoyed outstanding success elsewhere in Latin America. Thus, Shideler ( 41 ) reported· good results in Bolivia with a corn de- veloped by Del Valle in 1938-42. Since Del Valle (16) reported distributing a cross developed about that time between improved lines of "Habana" (Argentino) and "Gibara" (dent), Shideler's corn was probably a Criollo type. In winter tests conducted by the Florida State Everglades Experiment Station in 1952-53, two hybrids developed by Del Valle outproduced seventeen other types developed in the United States and elsewhere in the
26 RACES OF MAIZE Western Hemisphere. Indeed, in this trial Del Valle's Cuban corns occupied five of the first six places. The outstanding success of these hybrids may be attributed in part to hybrid vigor result- ing from crossing two distinct and unrelated races: Cuban dents and a South American orange flint. The result seems comparable to that obtained in the United States cornbelt by crossing dents from the southeastern United States (possibly related to the Cuban dents) with northern flints (Anderson and Brown, 2). Derimtion of name. Criollo in Spanish means creole, that is, born in Cuba; hence Maiz Criollo or native corn. References. Cutler, 14 (as "Coastal Tropical Flint"); Kuleshov, 26; Brown, 8 (as "Coastal Tropical Flint"); Komarek, 25 (as "Cuban Yellow Flint"). TUSON Plants. Tall, 2.5 to 2.7 m.; summer crop early maturing; no tillers; 0-2 rows of prop roots; 14 to 16 wide, very long leaves, venation index low; 2 ears per plant, the uppermost about 0.9 m. below base of tassel; sun-red color in all plants, not intense; purple color frequent, especially in husks. Seedling sun-red leaf colors: tip 94/{, margin 10%, blade none, sheath 94%, midrib 31 'jc , auricle none. Pubescence slight to intermediate; moder- ately susceptible to rust; chromosome knobs 5 to 7. Tassels. Long, extremely highly branched; 33% of branches secondary; tertiary branches frequent. Condensation index low. Ears, external characters. Medium to long, cylindrical, often with slight taper toward tip; 14 to 18 rows; shank thick; midcob color in 36/"o of ears examined. Kernels large, dented, pericarp wrinkled in 12% of ears examined; husk striations prominent; endosperm medium hard, indian yellow to cadmium orange; aleurone almost always colorless; pericarp color common (pew in 28% of ears examined). Glumes colored in 41.5'/c:, of ears ex- amined. Average number of husks 14.7, coarse, tightly wrapped around ear. Ears, internal characters. Ear diameter 48-56 mm.; cob diame- ter 30-39 mm.; rachis diameter 18-24 mm.; kernel length 11-13 mm.; kernel volume 0.30 cc.; estimated rachilla length 3.4 mm.:
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 27 cob/rachis index low, 1.62; ear length/rachis index low, 8.8; glumejkernel index medium, 0.52; rachilla/kernel index high, 0.28; pedicel hairs 0.3 to 0.6 mm. long, dense or none; cupule 5.7 mm. wide, 0.8 mm. high, 0.9 mm. deep; cupule hairs 0.3 to 0.6 mm. long, mostly dense; rachis Hap 1.8 mm. wide, not prominent; lower glumes horny, the margins mostly angulate to cordate, surface hairs 0.2 to 0.4 mm. long, sparse to dense, mostly lateral; marginal hairs 0.4 to 0.9 mm. long, moderately dense; upper glumes papery or papery-fleshy, venation prominent or none, the margins straight or slightly indented, basal hairs dense, few, or absent, 0.1 to 0.3 mm. long, tunicate allele tuw; rachis tissue mostly moderately hard. Distribution and importance in Cuba. Tus6n, a thick-cobbed cylindrical dent, until recent years was practically restricted in Cuba to the province of Oriente. Because of the common Cuban misconception that shelling percentage is equivalent to yield, many farmers prefer the slender-cobbed Canilla types to cylindri- cal dents. Thus, in early 1953 Tus6n was something of a rarity; typical cylindrical dent ears could be selected from granary piles, but the author was unable to find a farmer who was growing Tus6n and selecting it as a desirable type. Cylindrical dents in Cuba seemed therefore to be merely chance segregates, perhaps representing the occasional reappearance of an ancestral stock. In 1954 the situation was different. Of 991 ears collected on farms and granaries, 306 could be classified as cylindrical dents. In a large granary in the town of Palma Soriano, Oriente, 127 ears were classified as Tus6n of a total of 205 collected at random. I -was told by at least one farmer that relatively low shelling percentage was offset by larger grains and higher row number. This suggests that fashions change even in corn grow- ing, but the data for 1953 are inadequate for conclusive proof. Dent corn known to maize growers in western Cuba as "Gibara" (the name of a town on the north coast of Oriente px:ovince) enjoyed a brief popularity outside of Oriente province when, about the start of the Second World War, the Ministry of Agri- culture distributed about 300 tons of corn purchased in Oriente to farmers throughout Cuba (informant: Ing. Pablo Diaz Cuevas, University of Santa Clara). Although its influence is clearly
28 RACES OF MAIZE visible in many Criollo semiflints collected in 1954, "Maiz Gibara" is not popular with the small farmer who grows corn for home consumption. Of thirty-one farmers interviewed in the provinces of Pinar del Rio, Habana, Matanzas, and Las Villas, fifteen stated that they had formerly grown Maiz Gibara. Several gave weevil FIG. 4. Tuson. The thick cylindrical ears of this race, although similar to those of the Mexican Tuxpefio, resemble even more closely material collected in Haiti, Trinidad, and parts of Venezuela adjacent to Trinidad. In Cuba Tuson is common only in Oriente Province. This and all other photographs are reduced to the same scale: slightly less than one-half natural size; 1 em. = 2.2 ems. damage as their reason for abandoning the dent, although eight said that the dents gave better yields. Weevil damage, of course, is a more important consideration to the farmer who stores his corn for several months than it is to the grower who sells his I j
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 29 crop to a granary immediately after the harvest, as is common in Oriente. Eden ( 20) has shown that weevil infestation in corn is negatively correlated with hardness of grain. Distribution elsewhere in Caribbean. Brown ( 8) collected cylindrical dent maize in Cuba, Haiti, and Trinidad. He wrote that "it is never found growing as a variety yet it constantly occurs as a segregate in certain areas." The highest concentration occurred in Trinidad, although it was "not uncommon as a segregate in Cuba." 'lf'USDN FIG. 5. Ears which match Cuban Tus6n have been discovered recently in the vicinity of Monagas in northeastern Venezuela by collec- tors of the National Research Council's Committee on Preserva- tion of Indigenous Strains of Maize. They are stored at Medellin, Colombia. Since the distribution of Tus6n thus coincides almost per- fectly with the pre-Columbian distribution of the Caribbean Arawak, there seems little reason to doubt that they introduced it from South America through the Lesser Antilles to Puerto Rico, Hispaniola, and eastern Cuba before 1440 A.D. Brown, however, who considered that all denting in maize probably originated in Mexico, suggested that country as the place of origin of Cuban and Haitian cylindrical dents. Subsequently, Trinidad may have
30 RACES OF MAIZE received its cylindrical dent from the Greater Antilles. Never- theless, dent corns are of frequent occurrence in collections from coastal regions of northern South America. Since there is no other convincing evidence of migration of items of material culture from Mexico to northeastern South America via the Antilles, the hypothesis of Arawak introduction of dent corn into the West Indies from eastern Venezuela and possibly the Guianas seems more attractive to the present author. Derivation of name. Tusa is the word for cob in Cuba; hence Tus6n, meaning "large cob," the name used in most of eastern Oriente province. In western Oriente province, especially around the city of Bayamo, the name Maiz6n, meaning "big corn," is more common. "Diente caballo," meaning "horse's tooth," is also encountered frequently throughout Oriente province; the name refers to the shape of the grain. In western Cuba, Tus6n is usually called Maiz Gibara after the town on the north coast of Oriente province. References. Hernandez, 24 (as "Race 6"); Brown, 8 (as "Cylindrical Dent"). ARGENTINO Plants. Tall, 2.4 to 2.9 m.; summer crop early maturing; no tillers; 0-1 row of prop roots; 12 to 16 broad, long leaves; venation index medium; 1-2 ears per plant, the uppermost about 0.8 m. below base of tassel; sun-red color in all plants, not intense; purple color common, especially in husks and leaf sheaths. Seedling sun-red leaf colors: tip 94%, margin lOjo, blade none, sheath 94%, midrib 31%, auricle none. Pubescence slight; moderately susceptible to rust; chromosome knobs 6 to 9. Tassels. Long, highly branched; about 26% of branches secondary; 0 to 3ro of branches tertiary; condensation index low. Ears, external characters. Medium short, cylindrical to slightly conical or cigar-shaped. 12 to 14 or occasionally 16 rows; shank diameter medium; midcob color in 28% of ears examined. Ker- nels medium size, short, rounded, smooth; corneous starch very hard, cadmium orange to marigold orange; aleurone colorless or rarely purple; pericarp color common (pew in 13% of ears ex-
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 31 amined). Glume color in 19% of ears examined. Husk stria- tions in all ears examined, in some extending to tip of ear. Average number of husks 13.9, coarse, tightly wrapped around ear. Ears, internal characte1·s. Ear diameter 37 to 45 mm.; cob diameter 26 to 30 mm.; rachis diameter 14 to 19 mm.; kernel length 8 to 11 mm.; kernel volume 0.20 cc.; estimated rachilla length 2.41 mm.; cob/rachis index low, 1.70; ear length/rachis index medium, 10.2; glumejkernel index medium to high, 0.60; rachillajkernel index medium, 0.25; pedicel hairs 0.3 to 0.7 mm. long, frequently dense; cupule 5.6 mm. wide, 0.8 mm. high, 1.0 mm. deep; cupule hairs 0.3 to 0.6 mm. long, dense; rachis flap 1.8 mm., intermediate; lower glumes horny to bony, the margins mostly angulate, surface hairs 0.2 to 0.4 mm. long, many, few, or lacking, mostly lateral; marginal hairs 0.3 to 0.7 mm. long, sparse to dense; upper glumes papery or fleshy, venation weak or none, the margins straight or somewhat wrinkled; basal hairs 0.1 to 0.3 mm. long, few or none; tunicate allele tuw; rachis tissue mostly hard to very hard. Distribution and importance in Cuba. Mafz Argentino, an orange flint variety with relatively small ears, is grown chiefly in the province of Oriente, most of it being sold by farmers to almacenes (storage depots) in the larger towns, where it is shelled and subsequently shipped to Habana. In Habana the grain is converted to corn meal ( harina) which is an important article of commerce in all of Cuba, as well as a basic constituent of noodles and similar products. Because of its deep orange- yellow color and relatively low soft-starch content, Mafz Argen- tino is the preferred variety for making corn meal. Oriente grain dealers pay about 25 per cent more for shelled grain of Mafz Argentino than for semi-dents and dents. This higher price and the widespread notion that Maiz Argen- tino is a recent introduction and hence probably superior to unim- proved local varieties have induced many relatively wealthy Cuban farmers to grow the variety, and poorer farmers have followed their example. In recent years, however, the popularity of Mafz Argentino has apparently declined. Twenty-one per cent of Cuban farmers interviewed in 1954 had grown or were
32 RACES OF MAIZE growing Maiz Argentino, but low yields and other undesirable qualities had induced more than half of these to abandon the variety and take up others. History in Cuba. According to statistics published by the Cuban Ministerio de Hacienda (12), between 1914 and 1930 more than 171,000 tons of corn were imported into Cuba from Argentina. Parodi ( 35) has stated that the main type of maize FIG. 6. Argentino. This race was introduced into Cuba from Argentina after the First World War and was modified subsequently by introgression from indigenous races. Although yields are low, the orange flint grains of Maiz Argentino command a relatively high price in Cuban markets. Scale 1 em. = 2.2 em. exported from Argentina is the orange-yellow Cateto flint, ears of which are very similar to Cuban Maiz Argentino. Santiago importers interviewed in 1954 stated that they purchased large quantities of orange flint maize from Argentina between 1917 and 1928, ships having made delivery from that country to the Santiago docks. Until about 1928 this busjness was highly profit- able, for the grain was purchased duty-free at $2.25 to $2.50 a
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 33 hundred-weight, and a good market existed for corn meal pro- duced from Argentine corn. In order to encourage local pro- ducers, in the late 1920's a duty was placed on imported maize; imports from Argentina fell from nearly 34,000 tons in 1920 to 1,246 in 1930. Although most Argen~ine maize was converted to corn meal, some was sold to farmers in the Santiago area without prior fumigation. Yields at first were probably discouraging, for Cateto corn is not well adapted to Cuban conditions. Brazilian Cateto corn tested at the Atkins Garden has produced only spindling plants which set very few seeds. The Cuban corn breeder Pablo Diaz Cuevas stated (personal communication) that he had ARGENTINO FIG. 7. ⢠obtained similar results with material obtained from Argentina, but that hybrids of the Argentine corn and a Cuban variety yielded well. It is possible that the present Mafz Argentino of Cuba had a similar origin. Farmers in the Santiago region probably made repeated attempts to grow the valuable Argentine flint. Because of the common Cuban practice of planting two varieties in the same field, even if no sound Cateto-type ears were obtained at first, some Cateto pollen must have fallen on the indigenous Criollo (semi-flint) silks. Continued introgres- sion and selection for orange flint grains might well have re- sulted in the present race, which in its vegetative aspects is like other Cuban field corn but the ears of which are strikingly similar to the Cateto of South America.
34 RACES OF MAIZE Distribution outside Cuba. Brown ( 8) found that Maiz Argen- tino occurs in the West Indies only in Cuba. Ears of Cateto flints of Brazil and Argentina are essentially identical to rela- tively pure types of Cuban Maiz Argentino. If the Cuban race is indeed the same as the orange-yellow flints of eastern South America, its strikingly discontinuous distribution is further evi- dence of recent introduction to Cuba, since no races which could have given rise to it are known in the West Indies. Derivation of name. Argentino is the common local name for this race in Oriente province. Other names are "Especial" and, in western Cuba "Habana" and "Provincia." References. Hernandez, 24 (as "Race 5"); Brown, 8 (as "Cuban flint"); Parodi, 35 (as "Cateto"). CANILLA Plants. Tall, 2.4 to 2.7 m.; summer crop early maturing; no tillers; 0-2 rows of prop roots; 14 to 16 wide, long leaves, vena- tion index low; 2 ears per plant, the uppermost about 0.9 m. below base of tassel; sun-red color in all plants, not intense; intense purple color frequent, especially in husks and leaf sheaths. Seedling ~n-red leaf colors: tip 96%, margin 44%, blade 67'o, sheath 100%, midrib 52%, auricle none. Pubescence slight, moderately susceptible to rust; chromosome knobs 7 to 9. 1'assels. Long, many branches; about 267'o of branches sec- ondary; 0 to 5% of branches tertiary; condensation index low. Ears, external characters. Long, very thin cylindrical to candle- shaped, frequently extremely flexible; 10 to 16 rows; shank medium to small; midcob color in 32% of ears examined. Kernels of two types: one narrow, wedge-shaped, nearly orbicular in transverse section, conspicuously dented, with pericarp fre- quently wrinkled; the other rounded, more or less rectangular in transverse section, with soft starch extending to apex but no denting; corneous starch medium hard to hard, indian yellow to saffron yellow; aleurone colorless or rarely red or purple; peri- carp color common (pew in 287'o of ears examined). Glume color in 517'o of ears examined. Average number of husks 15.5, tightly wrapped but frequently shorter than ear, the cob then protruding beyond husk covering. Staminate spikelets common at tip of ear.
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 35 Ears, internal characters. Ear diameter 36 to 41 mm.; cob diameter 20 to 28 mm.; rachis diameter 9 to 14 mm.; kernel length 9 to 12.5 mm.; kernel volume 0.22 cc.; estimated rachilla length 2.26 mm.; cob/ rachis index high, 2.08; ear length/rachis index very high, 18.7; glumejkernel index medium, 0.54; rachilla/kernel index medium, 0.21; pedicel hairs when present 0.3 to 0.7 mm. long, lacking in 64% of ears examined; cupule 4.0 mm. wide, 1.7 mm. high, 1.0 mm. deep; cupule hairs 0.3 to 0.4 mm. long, sparse to dense; rachis flap 0.5 to 1.5 mm. wide, not prominent; lower glumes papery to fleshy, the margins mostly undulate to angulate, surface hairs 0.2 to 0.4 mm. long, dense, sparse, or lacking, chiefly lateral; marginal hairs 0.3 to 0.8 mm. long, dense; upper glumes thin papery to papery, venation mostly very strong, the margins straight or slightly indented, basal hairs few (lacking in 80% of ears examined), 0.1 to 0.2 mm. long; tunicate allele tuw; rachis tissue mostly soft or medium. Distrib.ution and importance in Cuba. Canilla, a race charac- terized by long, slender, often flexible ears, is abundant in Oriente and eastern Camagiiey provinces, where it is one of the chief commercial types. The reason most commonly given for its popularity is its high shelling percentage, which is frequently confused with yield. To many a Cuban farmer Maiz Canilla is almost "all corn" and "no cob." I suspect that the fundamental notion here is that the function of the corn plant is to produce grain, and that consequently the cob represents wasted energy. However this may be, commercial granaries discount only 15 per cent of the weight for the cob when buying Canilla in the ear and this is considered advantageous by many growers. The dis- count rate for other races is usually 20 per cent. Canilla is also preferred by many farmers because of the ease with which it can be shelled by hand. Outside of Oriente and Camagiiey, Canilla is known as "Ar- gentino." Its introduction into the western provinces seems to have been recent. About 30 per cent of the farmers interviewed in western Cuba had tried this variety, but only one was still growing it in 1955. Many seemed unaware of the existence of the variety, although seed is frequently available in the markets of all the larger cities.
36 RACES OF MAIZE Maiz Canilla exists in two forms described by Hern[mdez ( 24) as distinct races. The more common variety is characterized by long, thin, wedge-shaped, dented grains, soft lower glumes, and a flexible cob. The grains of the second type are round, relatively Fie. 8. Canilla. Long, slender, often flexible ears characterize this race, which has been collected in eastern Cuba, Haiti, Trinidad, Venezuela, and Colombia. Scale 1 em. = 2.2 em. short, and hard, although the soft-starch column reaches the tip of the grain. Intense pericarp color is frequent. The lower glumes are moderately hard and short. The cob is only slightly flexible. Brown considered the two varieties as forms of the same race, as do the Cuban farmers interviewed by the present
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 37 author. A multiplicity of local names exists for the various forms, however. Distribution outside Cuba. Brown ( 8) found "Mals Chandelle" in Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Trinidad. The semi-flint type was restricted to Cuba and Haiti. A Colombian variety known as "Puya amarilla" seems identical with the semi- Hint type (Mangelsdorf's accession No. 1813), and the dent variety can be matched with specimens collected in Venezuela ( Mangelsdorf's accession No. 1554) . CANII.I.A FIG. 9. Origin and relationships. The range of Canilla in the West Indies coincides with that of Tuson and corresponds well with the known pre-Columbian distribution of the Taino Arawak. No races of corn are known in Cuba which could have given rise through hybridization or selection to Canilla. It therefore seems obvious to search for the origin of this race on the mainland of . South America, where very similar ears have indeed been col- lected. The Dzit-bacal race of Yucatan is also similar. Since the ancestry of Dzit-bacal is not well understood (Wellhausen et al., 45), it is at least possible that both Canilla and Dzit-bacal had a common origin along the north coast of South America. Although Maiz Canilla is probably indigenous in the West Indies, it is possible that in Cuba this variety and the cylindrical dent race, Tuson, are post-Columbian introductions from His- paniola. The Taino tradition was centered on that island and Puerto Rico before the Spanish conquest, whereas most of Cuba
38 RACES OF MAIZE was occupied by the less advanced Sub-Taino culture. A perusal of Columbus' Journal gives the impression that the admiral con- sidered the agriculture of Hispaniola much more highly devel- oped than that of Cuba. It seems possible, therefore, that the Taino Arawak possessed more varieties of corn than the more primitive Sub-Taino of Cuba. Following the cession of Santo Domingo by Spain to France in 1697, considerable immigration from Haiti to Oriente province took place. The revolution of negro slaves in Haiti in 1803-04 caused more people to flee to eastern Cuba. It is not impossible that Maiz Canilla was introduced during either of those periods. French influence in Oriente province is apparent in the local names for some cultivated plants. For example, the word carrota is occasionally used for the carrot near Santiago de Cuba, al- though zanahoria is universal outside of Oriente province. Derivation of name. Canilla in Spanish means "armbone" or "shinbone," an obvious reference to the long, slender ears of this race. Cufia, which means "wedge" and probably refers to the shape of the grain, is used in eastern Oriente. From Bayamo west to Camagtiey the common name is Tayuyo, a local term for the tarnal. Pineo, an archaic word meaning "pygmy," is used in some parts of Oriente province. In western Cuba Maiz Canilla is commonly called "Argentino." References. Hernandez, 24 (as "Races 3 and 4"); Brown, 8 (as "Ma'is Chandelle"). WHITE POP Plants. Short to medium height, 1.5 to 2.5 m.; summer crop early maturing; no tillers; 1 row of prop roots occasional, mostly lacking; 11 to 14 leaves of intermediate length and width; venation index medium high; 1 to 2 ears, the uppermost about 0.7 m. below base of tassel; sun-red color present in all plants, very weak; purple plant color occasional, if present, strong in leaf sheaths and husks. Seedling sun-red leaf colors: tip 100%, margin 25j'c, blade none, sheath 100%,, midrib 75%, auricle none. Pubescence slight, moderately resistant to rust; chromo- some knobs 6.
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 39 Tassels. Short, many branches; about 177o of branches sec- ondary; tertiary branches rare; condensation index low. Ears, external characters. Short, small, tapering toward apex and sometimes also toward base; 12 to 16 rows; shank small; midcob color in 32% of ears examined. Kernels small, rounded at tip, "pearl pop" type; endosperm horny, dirty white; aleurone colorless; pericarp colorless or infrequently dark red. Average number of husks 15.6, somewhat loosely wrapped around ear. Ears, internal characters. Ear diameter 33 to 43 mm.; cob diameter 27 to 31 mm.; rachis diameter 13 to 16 mm.; kernel length 7 to 10 mm.; kernel volume 0.15 cc.; estimated rachilla length 2.57 mm.; cob/ rachis index medium, 1.89; ear length/rachis index low, 8.0; glumejkernel index high, 0.72; rachillaj kernel index high, 0.30; pedicel hairs mostly 0.2 to 0.4 mm. long, dense; cupule 4.8 mm. wide, 0.6 mm. high, 1.1 mm. deep; cupule hairs 0.1 to 0.4 mm. long, sparse to dense; rachis flap 1.3 mm. long, intermediate; lower glumes horny, the margins angulate to cor- date; surface hairs 0.2 to 0.4 mm. long, lateral or apical, dense, sparse, or lacking; marginal hairs 0.2 to 0.6 mm. long, dense; upper glumes papery to fleshy, venation weak, the margins straight; basal hairs 0.1 to 0.3 mm. long, sparse or more fre- quently lacking; marginal hairs 0.1 to 0.3 mm. long, sparse or lacking; tunicate allele tu1; rachis tissue hard to very hard. Distribution and history. In 1949, Hernandez and Clement discovered in the district of Filipinas, near Guantanamo, a white pearl popcorn with relatively thick, slightly conical ears unlike any types then known in the United States or Mexico. Subse- quently, however, somewhat similar popcorns were encountered in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Colombia. Despite such similarities, a study of the recent history of the Cuban white popcorn leads to the conclusion that it is an indigenous product, the hybrid of a white rice pop imported from the United States and the common Criollo semi-flint. By interviewing growers in the Filipinas district in 1953, the author was able to trace the white popcorn to the town of Zaza del Medio, in central Cuba, whence it had been brought to Filipinas by a single family. In Zaza del Medio the white pop- corn was found in abundance. According to an apparently re-
40 RACES OF MAIZE liable informant in that town, the white popcorn had been im- ported from the United States in small cardboard packages shortly after the First World War. In the western province of Pinar del Rio several farmers claimed formerly to have grown a white popcorn, seeds of which they had purchased in stores in the provincial capital. With the aid of local merchants the salesman who had distributed the seed FIG. 10. White Pop. A United States improved variety modified by introgression from Maiz Criollo, White Pop is grown sporadically in Cuba. A red-pericarped variant is not uncommon around the town of Zaza del Medio, Las Villas Province. Scale 1 em. = 2.2 em. was located, and from him the popcorn was traced to "Viuda de Lopez," a well known importing house in Habana. An officer of "Viuda de Lopez" confirmed the salesman's account and pro- duced invoices showing that it had purchased popcorn from the Albert Dickinson Company of Chicago. In answer to a letter of inquiry a representative of the Albert Dickinson Company wrote than an "open pollinated white rice popcorn ... out of production in [the United States] was formerly sold in Cuba under the YANKEE BRAND . .. . Some
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 41 twenty years ago a yellow popcorn was substituted, because it does a better job of popping." Hybrids have been developed from this "so-called Argentine Popcorn." It is now being pack- aged in sealed tins, since "we found over the years that you could not use a paper carton and retain the popping quality of the corn in the container." Unfortunately, "any records on the old white rice popcorn would be so old that they have long since been destroyed. . . . we can assure you that the old type of white rice popcorn which was first put out under the YANKEE BRAND after the First World War has been out of production for a great many years in this country." W/JOITE /POP FIG. 11. Thus it is clear that a white rice popcorn packaged in paper cartons was sold in Cuba for about fifteen years after the First World War by a Chicago seed house. In addition, the reliability of the Cuban informants is established, in this case at least, so that there is no reason to doubt their statements that the United States popcorn was actually grown by some farmers. One important discrepancy remains. The United States variety was a "rice type" or pointed pop, whereas the Cuban form is a "pearl type" with rounded grains. This difference, together with the poor popping quality of the Cuban pop, is most simply ex- plained by assuming hybridization of the American white rice variety with the indigenous Cuban "Criollo" semi-flint corn. In 1954 at Zaza del Medio the two varieties were planted in the same or adjacent fields by farmers who did not understand the biological function of pollen, and it was not difficult to collect intermediate forms.
42 RACES OF MAIZE Del Valle and Hidalgo Gato ( 19) stated that the white pop- corn which they collected in the province of Las Villas and at Gi.iines ( Habana province) is probably a "selection from a white popcorn which came originally from the United States and which is not yet completely acclimated." In an earlier paper Del Valle ( 17) remarked that foreign varieties when grown in Cuba often displayed a more vigorous vegetative stage than indigenous races, but that, shortly after the appearance of the tassels and ears, the plants frequently died without producing well de- veloped ears or grains. He noted this behavior in some of the progeny of white popcorn collected in Cuba. Some efforts have been made by Ing. Pablo Diaz Cuevas, of the University of Santa Clara, to discourage Cuban farmers from sowing the white popcorn, since the practice of growing it in the same field with the Criollo semi-flint should theoretically result in the contamination of the latter with genes of the low- yielding pop. Such campaigns may have temporary local success, but the desire of the small Cuban farmer to have a small amount of popcorn in the house probably will ensure the survival of this variety in Cuba for many years. Del Valle has recently an- nounced the production of a new yellow popcorn obtained from selection and hybridization of mutants of orange Cuban flints. In view of the almost invariable habit of the small Cuban farmer who has two varieties of corn to sow both in the same field, it is unlikely that the new popcorn will find widespread use in Cuba, for once in the hands of the small farmer immediate swamping out by yellow field corns would seem inevitable. White grain color has undoubtedly been the most important factor in the survival of the Cuban white popcorn. Its wide distribution- from Pinar del Rio to Guantanamo - is the result of modern merchandising practices on the part of the Albert Dickinson Company and Viuda de Lopez y Cia., and the increasing mobility of the Cuban people, whose propensity to nomadism resembles somewhat that found to a greater degree in the United States. Local name. In Cuba all popcorns are called "maiz de polio" - meaning literally "com for chickens" - or "maiz de rositas." The word "rosita" alludes to the form of the popped grain, which is considered to resemble a little rose. The White Pop is some-
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 43 times called "maiz de polio blanco"; the red-pericarped variant is called "maiz de pollo morado," or "purple popcorn." Reference. Hernandez, 24 (as "Race 1"). YELLOW POP Plants. Short to medium height, 1.7 to 2.1 m.; summer crop very early maturing; no tillers; 0 to 1 row of prop roots; 11 to 15 fairly wide, short leaves; venation index very low; 1 to 3 ears, the uppermost about 0.6 m. below base of tassel; sun-red and purple plant colors common. Seedling sun-red leaf colors: tip 93%,, margin 11%, blade 2%, sheath 96%, midrib 18%, auricle none. Pubescence moderately strong; moderately susceptible to rust; chromosome knobs 9 to 11. Tassels. Very short, very high number of branches arising from 40% of the length of the main axis; about 30~,{, of branches secondary, 2% tertiary; condensation index low. Ears, external characters. Short, mostly slender, cigar-shaped, tapering chiefly toward tip; 12 to 16 rows; shank mostly slender; midcob color in 337o of ears examined. Kernels very small, long, frequently wedge-shaped, rounded at tips; striations pronounced; endosperm horny, pop type, with very little soft starch, orange- yellow; aleurone colorless; pericarp colorless; ears frequently slightly flexible. Average number of husks 16.2, tightly wrapped around ear. Ears, internal characters. Ear diameter 20 to 40 mm.; cob diameter 15 to 25 mm.; rachis diameter 7 to 16 mm.; kernel length 7 to 10 mm.; kernel volume 0.14 cc.; estimated rachilla length 1.6 mm.; cob/rachis index high, 2.04; ear length/rachis index high, 11.4; glumejkernel index medium, 0.61; rachilla/ker- nel index low, 0.19; pedicel hairs 0.2 to 0.6 mm. long, mostly dense; cupule 3.2 mm. wide, 0.8 mm. high, 0.8 mm. deep; cupule hairs 0.1 to 0.4 mm. long, sparse to dense; rachis flap mostly 0.8 mm. wide, weak; lower glumes mostly papery to fleshy, the margins angulate to cordate; surface hairs 0.1 to 0.3 mm. long, mostly lateral, dense, sparse, or none; marginal hairs 0.2 to 0.3 mm. long, mostly dense; upper glumes papery, venation weak to prominent, the margins straight or slightly indented;
44 RACES OF MAIZE basal hairs if present very short, lacking in 83j{ of ears examined; marginal hairs 0.1 to 0.2 mm., scattered or lacking; tunicate allele tu"; rachis tissue soft. History and distribution. Yellow Pop is readily distinguished from all other races of Cuban maize by its small cylindrical to slightly conical ears with 12 to 16 rows of slender, wedge-shaped grains, its relatively short plants with hairy leaf sheaths, and its FIG. 12. Yellow Pop. This race was collected at two farms in Las Villas Prov- ince. It is probably a selection from the United States variety "Queen Golden." Scale 1 em. = 2.2 em. earliness. It was found in a single town in the central province of Las Villas only after a persistent search for growers of a type reported by Hermindez (24) to be similar to the Nal-tel race of Mexico. Hernandez' variety, which was based on specimens selected from commercial granary piles in Oriente province, appears to have been a group of chance segregates or second ears of Maiz Argentino and thus does not constitute a race as that term is defined in this paper. Farmers in Las Villas stated that they had known the Yellow _j
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 45 Pop only since about 1945. It is said to be grown for popping and to feed young chicks, which are unable to swallow the larger grains of field corn. Because of its limited distribution and short history of use, the Yellow Pop race is here considered a recent introduction to Cuba. It may be a selection from the open pollinated United States variety Queen Golden (Sturtevant, 42), YE/l.LOW POP FIG. 13. which it resembles in certain respects. Since there is a persistent demand among small Cuban farmers for a variety of popcorn adapted to their growing conditions, it may increase in im- portance. Local name. None well established, but one grower suggested "Maiz de polio enano," or "Dwarf popcorn," referring to the small stature of the plant. WHITE DENT Plants. Short, 1.4 to 1.8 m.; summer crop early maturing; no tillers; 0 to 1 row of prop roots; 13 to 14 short, medium narrow leaves; venation index high; 2 ears, the uppermost about 0.6 m. below base of tassel; sun-red color slight; purple color infrequent. Seedling sun-red leaf colors: tip 100J'o, margin 54j{,, blade 8%, sheath 100%, midrib 85%, auricle none. Pubescence very slight; moderately susceptible to rust; chromosome knobs 6 to 8. Tassels. Very short, poorly exserted from uppermost leaf sheaths; number of branches intermediate, arising from more than one third length of tassel; about 157o of branches secondary; tertiary branches lacking; condensation index very low. Ears, external characters. Extremely short, cylindrical or
46 RACES OF MAIZE slightly tapering, usually with a pronounced sterile tip. 10 to 12 rows; shank diameter medium; no midcob color. Kernels short, medium wide, medium narrow, well dented, highly susceptible to attack by weevils; husk striations present; endosperm medium hard, dirty white; aleurone and pericarp colorless. Average number of husks 12, long, tightly wrapped around ear. Ears, intemal characters. Ear diameter 34 to 39 mm.; cob FIG. 14. White Dent. Apparently identical to the Mexican race "Zapalote Chico," White Dent was collected at a single farm in a remote village in Oriente Province. Scale 1 em. = 2.2 em. diameter 20 to 24 mm.; rachis diameter 11 to 14 mm.; kernel length 9 to 11 mm.; kernel volume 0.15 cc.; estimated rachilla length 2.38 mm.; cob/rachis index medium, 1.78; ear length/rachis index low, 8.8; glumejkernel index low, 0.50; rachillajkernel index medium, 0.24; pedicel hairs lacking; cupule 5.6 mm. wide, 0.3 mm. high, 1.4 mm. deep; cupule hairs 0.2 to 0.3 mm. long, sparse to dense; rachis flap about 1.4 mm. wide, moderately weak; lower glumes fleshy to horny, the margins angulate to cordate, surface hairs 0.1 to 0.2 mm. long, mostly scattered near apex; marginal hairs 0.6 to 0.7 mm. long, scattered; upper glumes
EXISTING RACES OF MAIZE IN CUBA 47 fleshy, the margins straight or somewhat wrinkled, venation very weak or none, glabrous. Tunicate allele tu or tuw; rachis tissue moderately hard. Distribution. The rarest of Cuban races of maize is a small white dent com collected at a single farm in the mountainous district of Caujeri, in eastern Oriente province. Its small stature, narrow leaves, tendency to put forth silks before the emergence of the anthers, and its relatively soft white grains set it far apart from other races of Cuban maize. According to the wife of the grower, although commercial granaries refuse to buy this W/JDOTE DIENT FIG. 15. white com, it is maintained on her husband's farm because it produces a superior com meal. It is not used for popping. In 1954 Professor P. C. Mangelsdorf suggested that the Caujeri com was practically identical with "Zapalote Chico," which has been collected at low elevations near the western coast of southern Mexico. Table 2 shows that the two types are indeed similar. If the identification is correct, it would seem probable that an introduction from Mexico to Cuba was relatively recent. Any careful investigation of the presence of this race on a single farm in a remote hamlet in the mountains of eastern Cuba, of course, should begin at Caujerf. Unfortunately, at the time of the author's visit, the grower, who might have known something of the history of his white dent corn, was not at home. Local name. "Argentino Blanco" or "White Argentine com."
